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Pathophysiology > General: Topic 5-12 > Flashcards

General: Topic 5-12 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the most prominent cation of the EC space?

A

Na+

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2
Q

What is the main role of Na+?

A

To maintain the isoosmosis in the EC space (along with Cl-)

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3
Q

To what degree (%) is Na+ and Cl- responsible for maintaining the EC space osmolality?

A

90%

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4
Q

Which hormone is especially important for the renal reabsorption of Na+?

A

Aldosterone

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5
Q

Which bodily fluid reflects the plasma concentration of Na+ levels?

A

Saliva

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6
Q

Saliva reflects the plasma concentration of what?

A

Na+

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7
Q

What are some causes for Hyponatraemia?

A
  1. Diarrhoea
  2. Decreased renal reabsorption (/lack of aldosterone)
  3. Increased water intake
  4. Decreased Na+ intake (rare)
  5. Hypoaldosteronism (Addison’s disease)
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8
Q

What are some consequences of Hyponatraemia?

A
  1. Allotriophagy:
    The animal will eat non-nutritive substances due to mineral loss / nutrient deficiency
  2. Hypotonic dehydration:
    Loss of saline = Decreased EC volume
  3. Hypotonic hyperhydration:
    Increased water intake = Decreased Na+ concentration
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9
Q

What are some causes for hypernatraemia?

A
  1. Water loss
  2. Salt poisoning (most commonly in birds and pigs)
  3. Hyperaldosteronism (Conn’s syndrome): Develops in liver diseases, causing metabolic disturbances
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10
Q

What are some consequences of Hypernatraemia?

A
  1. CNS symptoms

2. Hypertonic dehydration (water loss = dec. EC volume)

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11
Q

What is the most prominent anion of the EC space?

A

Cl-

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12
Q

Which anion passively follows Na+ during it’s metabolism?

A

Cl-

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13
Q

What are some causes of Hypocloraemia?

A
  1. Vomiting
  2. Diarrhoea
  3. Hyponatraemic conditions
  4. Abomasal displacement (separated from Na+, and cannot be taken up in the intestines. Is moved back to the rumen: reflux phenomenon)
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14
Q

What is the consequence of Hypochloraemia?

A

Metabolic alkalosis die to increased HCO3- levels

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15
Q

What are some causes of Hyperchloraemia?

A
  1. Salt poisoning
  2. Iatrogenic misinfusion
  3. Hypernatraemic conditions
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16
Q

What is the consequence of Hyperchloraemia?

A

There are no independent consequences of Hyperchloraemia; always in connection with Na+ concentration

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17
Q

What is the cation’s effects are antagonised by K+?

A

Ca2+

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18
Q

What are some causes of hyopkalaemia?

A
  1. Vomiting
  2. Diarrhoea
  3. Abomasal displacement
  4. Alkalosis
  5. Hyperaldosteronism (Conn’s) (Aldosterone = Na+ in, K+ out)
  6. Decreased intake (rare)
  7. Insulin
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19
Q

What effect does Aldosterone have on K+?

A

Aldosterone affects the Na+ / K+ activity of the renal tubules: Na+ is reabsorbed and K+ is excreted in the presence of aldosterone

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20
Q

What effects does insulin have on K+?

A

Insulin affects glucose uptake in the cells via the glucose / K+ co-transport system. As a result, there is a transfer of K+ from the EC to the IC (Hypokalaemia)

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21
Q

What are some consequences of hypokalaemia?

A
  1. Muscle weakness (decreased neuromuscular irritability)
  2. Arrhythmias (decreased conductance stimuli)
  3. Glucose intolerance: insulin cannot transport glucose into cells without K+
  4. Polyuria
  5. Polydipsia
  6. Alkalosis
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22
Q

What are some causes of Hyperkalaemia?

A
  1. Acidosis (increased H+ —> H+ / K+ pumps —> EC K+ conc inc.)
  2. Cellular injuries
  3. Increase in intake (fertilisers, fresh grass)
  4. Hypoaldosteronism (Addison’s)
  5. Iatrogenic injections
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23
Q

What are the consequences of Hyperkalaemia?

A
  1. Altered cardiac conductance
  2. Dilatation of the heart in diastole
  3. Hyperkaluria
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24
Q

What are the fractions (in %) of Ca2+ in the plasma?

A 
40% = Ionized form
50% = Bound to albumin
10% = Takes part in complex molecules
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25
What are the most important roles of calcium?
1. Structure of bones and teeth 2. Co-factor in blood clotting 3. Affects the secretive function on cell receptors 4. Muscle function
26
Which 6 factors are responsible for the Ca2+ levels in the body?
1. Intake 2. Demand 3. Blood phosphate concentration 4. C-cells of the parathyroid gland 5. Vitamin D 6. Albumin
27
Which metabolic processes could increase the need for Ca2+?
Egg laying, milk production, bone formation (young animals)
28
How are Ca2+ and phosphate contents of the blood related?
They are inversely related
29
Which gland is important in the maintenance of Ca2+ in the blood?
The parathyroid gland
30
What is the name of the cells in the parathyroid gland that release PTH?
C-cells
31
What is PHT?
Parathyroid hormone
32
What is the role of PTH?
The parathyroid hormone is responsible for the maintenance of a narrow range of calcium levels in the blood
33
How does PTH (mainly) increase the Ca2+ level in the blood?
It stimulates the osteoclasts or break down bone and release calcium
34
How are vitamin D and Ca2+ related?
Vitamin D is required for the absorption of Ca2+ (and phosphate)
35
How is Vitamin D related to phosphate?
Vitamin D is required for the absorption of phosphate (and Ca2+)
36
How does alkalosis change the fractions of Ca2+ in the blood?
Alkalosis causes an increase in the “protein bound Ca2+” fraction, which causes a decrease in the “Ionised Ca2+” fraction
37
How does acidosis change the fractions of Ca2+ in the blood?
Acidosis causes an increase in the “Ionised Ca2+” fraction, which causes a decrease in the “protein-bound Ca2+” fraction
38
How does hypoalbuminaemia affect the Ca2+ concentration?
Hypoalbuminaemia cases a decrease in the total Ca2+ concentration
39
Name the factors that cause a decrease in the Ca2+ and phosphate absorption
1. Ageing 2. Inc. body weight 3. Inc. intestinal peristalsis 4. Intestinal circularity disorders 5. Increased fat, Mg2+, F, or physio content of feedstuff
40
Name the factor that causes an increase in the Ca2+ and phosphate absorption
Increased protein content of the feedstuff
41
What are the most important endocrine regulators of phosphate and calcium?
PTH and calcitonin
42
What are the regulatory effects of PTH of Ca2+ and Phosphate?
1. Inc. P excretion in kidney (=dec. plasma conc.) 2. Mobilises Ca2+ and P from bones (Inc. osteoclasts activity) (inc. Ca2+ and P plasma conc. Total = Inc. Ca2+ plasma conc. (P remains unchanged)
43
What are the regulatory effects of calcitonin of Ca2+ and Phosphate?
1. Increased renal excretion of P (=dec. plasma conc.) 2. Decreased mobilisation of Ca2+ from bone (= dec. plasma conc.) Total = Decreased Ca2+ and P plasma conc.
44
What is the double effect of calcitonin (on Ca2+ and P)?
1. Renal P excretion increases 2. Bone resorption decreases (dec. osteoclasts activity) Total = Plasma Ca2+ AND P decreases
45
What is the double effect of PHT (on Ca2+ and P)?
1. Renal P excretion increases 2. Ca2+ and P is mobilized from bones (Inc. osteoclast activity) Total = Plasma Ca2+ conc. increases, Plasma P conc. stays the same
46
What are the effects of the D-hormone?
1. Facilitates intestinal Ca2+, Mg2+, and P absorption 2. Stimulates the expression of transport proteins to support a proper Ca2+ / p balance for the mineralisation of bones 3. Improves the utilisation of phytin (P, energy, myoinositol, and cation source)
47
What are some reasons for Vitamin D deficiency?
1. Genetic deficit in the Vitamin D receptors 2. Severe liver or kidney disease 3. Insufficient exposure to sunlight
48
What are the consequences of vitamin D deficiency?
1. Osteoporosis (decrease of bone matrix) 2. Rickets 3. Osteomalacia 4. Osteoarthritis (general inflammation of bones and joints) 5. PHT abnormalities 6. High blood pressure
49
Name some of the influencing factors of Ca2+ homeostasis
1. Demand 2. Intake 3. Absorption 4. Blood phosphate content 5. Parathyroid gland (C-cells, PTH) 6. Vitamin D (D-hormone) 7. Hypoalbuminaemia 8. Alkalosis (Ionised Ca2+ dec; PB Ca2+ inc.) 9. Acidosis (Ionised Ca2+ inc; PB Ca2+ dec.)
50
What causes Ca2+ deficiency?
Primary form: Rare | 2ndary form: When PTH + Vit D3 levels decrease or anti freezing compound toxicosis
51
What happens to PTH in Ca2+ deficiency?
Secretion is stimulated
52
What happens to PTH in Ca2+ overload?
Secretion is inhibited
53
What happens to calcitonin when blood Ca2+ levels are low?
Secretion is at a minimum / inhibited
54
What happens to calcitonin when blood Ca2+ levels are high?
Secretion is stimulated
55
What happens to vitamin D when Ca2+ levels are high?
Synthesis of D-hormone (D3) is suppressed due to low PTH secretion
56
What happens to vitamin D when Ca2+ levels are low?
Production of D-hormone (D3) is stimulated due to increased levels of PTH
57
What happens to the renal excretion of phosphate when Ca2+ levels are high?
Renal excretion of P is decreased due to low levels of PTH
58
What happens to the renal excretion of phosphate when Ca2+ levels are low?
The excretion of P is strongly stimulated by PTH
59
What are the consequences (illnesses) of hypocalcaemia?
1. Tetany 2. Osteomalacia (rickets) 3. Renal failure (causes hyperphosphataemia) 4. Milk fever 5. Eclampsia
60
What are the consequences of hypercalcaemia?
1. Hypercalcuria 2. Hypophosphataemia 3. Osteopathies 4. Osteogenesis (calcification) 5. Nephropathy a. Decreased Zn absorption = Skin problems b. Effect on heart can lead to cardiac arrest during systole
61
What are the consequences of Hyperparathyroidism?
1. Malaise, lethargy, depression, confusion 2. Muscle weakness 3. Renal colic (kidney stones) 4. Polyuria / nocturia 5. Nausea and vomiting 6. Constipation 7. Peptic ulcers 8. Osteoporosis
62
Describe primary hyperparathyroidism
Parathyroid adenoma —> High PTH —> High Ca2+ and low P levels in plasma
63
Describe secondary hyperparathyroidism
Renal failure —> Impaired PO4 excretion + Impaides Vit D activation —> High PTH, Normal /high phosphate, and Normal or low Ca2+
64
What are the causes of hypophosphataemia?
Primary (main form): Lack of P in feed | Secondary: Phytin overdose in monogastric animals
65
What are the consequences of hypophosphataemia?
1. Retarded growth (lack of ATP) 2. Osteopathies 3. Reproductive function disorders (non-infectious) 4. Post-partum haemoglobinuria
66
Why does hypophosphataemia not occur in ruminants?
Because they (as opposed to monogastric animals) have phytase in the rumen, which makes them able to break down phytin
67
What are the causes of hyperphosphataemia?
Primary (main form): Increased intake | Secondary: Through a lack of calcium or a decreased renal function
68
What is one of the most important functions of Mg2+?
It is required for the activity of many enzymes (oxidative phosphorylation)
69
What is the absorption of Mg2+ influenced by?
The amount of Ca2+, P, and K+ in the diet High dietary conc. of these = low absorption of Mg2+ due to saturation of cellular transporters
70
What causes Hypomagnesaemia?
Primary: Limited intake Secondary: K+ excess, stress.
71
What is the consequence (illnesses) caused by hypomagnesaemia?
1. Tetany a. Neuromuscular hyperirritability (Prolonged involuntary muscle contraction du to inc. release of Ach and dec. Ach etsterase activity) b. Grass staggers (eating grass low in Mg2+) c. Transport tetany, winter tetany, whole milk tetany
72
What is the consequence of Hypermagnesaemia?
1. Diarrhoea (local effect of GI tract) | 2. Decreased muscle irritability (muscle weakness / lameness)
73
What is another name for parturient paresis?
Milk fever or Eclampsia
74
Which elements are out of balance in milk fever?
Hypocalcaemia (can be caused by hypermagnesaemia)
75
What can cause hypocalcaemic tetanus?
1. Parathyroid gland having relative or absolute hypofunction (excess excretion of Ca2+) 2. Renal failure (due to hyperphosphataemia)
76
Which types of tetanus are caused by hypomagnesaemia?
1. Grass staggers 2. Winter tetany 3. Whole milk tetany 4. Transport tetany
77
Name some symptoms of tetanus
1. Depressed appetite 2. Dull, lethargic appearance 3. Stiffness 4. Staggering gait 5. Excitability / muscular tremors 6. Collapse, thrashing about, death
78
How much of the blood calcium is immediately available for utilisation?
50%
79
How much higher is the demand for Ca2+ during the first day of lactation in a cow?
Three times higher than than the normal amount (50%) available in the blood
80
Which elements increase in the body during milk fever?
1. Urea / nitrogen 2. Lactic acid 3. Peruvian acid 4. Chloride 5. Hydrocortisone 6. AST 7. PTH 8. 1,25-diOH D3 9. PCV
81
Which elements decrease in the body during milk fever?
1. Inorganic phosphorous (P) 2. Total P 3. Acid-soluble P 4. Globulins
82
What is the “real” name of milk fever / Eclampsia?
Parturient paresis
83
What elements become imbalanced during milk fever (e.g. hypo (hyper)?
1. Hypophosphataemia 2. Hyperglycaemia 3. Hypermagnesaemia 4. Hypoinsulinaemia
84
Name some complications that can occur from milk fever
1. Muscle, tendon, joint damages / degeneration (Downing cow syndrome) 2. Toxaemia from infection of the udder, reproductive tract, or digestive system
85
Which dog breeds are most likely to get eclampsia?
Small breeds
86
When does eclampsia usually occur?
1-3 weeks after birth

Pathophysiology (5 decks)

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