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Genetic Processes Test Flashcards

(55 cards)

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1
Q

Interphase

A

-Is the time between nuclear divisions
-Cells grow by doubling cytoplasmic components including chromosomes
-Repairs to damaged cell parts or programmed cell death
-Chromosomes are uncondensed, collectively referred to as chromatin

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2
Q

Mitosis

A

PMAT
-Asexual
-Daughter cells have the same # of chromosomes as the parent cell. (46 for humans)
-All cells in the human body are derived from the one fertilized egg cell at conception

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3
Q

Prophase

A

-Chromatin condense into chromatids and pair off into sister chromatids held by a centromere
-In animal cells the centrioles move to opposite poles of the cell
-Spindle fibres attach to centrioles
-Most plants don’t have centrioles but spindle fibres still form
-Nuclear membrane fades and dissolves to allow for separation of the chromosomes and cell organelles

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4
Q

Metaphase

A

-Sister chromatids move towards the middle of the cell/equatorial plate
-Spindle fibres align the pairs into position

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5
Q

Anaphase

A

-Centromeres divide
-The sister chromatids pull apart and move to opposite poles of the cell

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6
Q

Telophase

A

-Chromosomes reach opposite poles of the cell, begin to lengthen & relax
-Spindle fibres dissolve
-Nuclear membrane begins to form around each new mass of chromatin

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7
Q

Cytokinesis

A

-Division of the cytoplasm
-Two new daughter cells are now separate
-In animal cells, a cleavage furrow formed
-In plant cells a cell plate is formed between the two cells which becomes a cell plate later
-Cells continue back into interphase

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8
Q

Chromosomes

A

Genetic material/DNA in nucleus which is condensed, folded, and packaged with Histone Proteins. Packaged DNA structures are called Chromosomes.

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9
Q

Stages of Interphase

A

-G1 - cell grows to allow space for duplicate organelles
-S - DNA is synthesized/copied so cell knows how to replicate and perform its duties
-G2 - Cell grows more/again to prepare for mitosis

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10
Q

Deox-yribo-nucleic Acid

A

DNA, a macromolecule, made up of nucleotides. The sequence of groups of nucleotides / genes creates certain traits which are passed down to offspring

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11
Q

Structure of a Nucleotide

A

Each nucleotide is made of 3 parts:
1. A phosphate group
2. A sugar (deoxyribose)
3. A nitrogenous base ( Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Thyamine)
A=T, C≡G - 2 or 3 hydrogen bonds

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12
Q

Gene

A

-Contain the instructions for the production of proteins which make up the structure of cells & control their function

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13
Q

Homologous Chromosomes

A

-Pairs of chromosomes that appear similar
-Contain genes for the same traits at the same locations
-May carry different alleles(forms of the gene ex. one says blond hair, the other says brown)

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14
Q

Karyotypes

A

-A cell sample is collected, treated to stop mitosis during metaphase
-stained to show banding
-Chromosomes sorted from longest to shortest, paired
-Autosomes numbered 1-22
-Sex chromosomes labeled x or y.
-Identifies missing or extra chromosomes & abnormal banding pattern.

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15
Q

2 purposes of meiosis

A
  1. Genetic reduction – reduces the # of chromosomes from diploid —> haploid
  2. Genetic recombination – gametes produced by meiosis have difference combinations of alleles (gene variations)
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16
Q

Divisions of meiosis

A
  1. Meiosis I
    -crossing over and random assortment occur
    -homologous pairs seperate
  2. Meiosis II
    -sister chromatids seperate
    -this division is most similar to mitosis
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17
Q

Crossing over

A

-During prophase I, homologous chromosomes pair up (synapsis)
-Maternal chromatids may exchange bits of DNA with paternal chromatids

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18
Q

Tetrad

A

A pair of chromosomes, one paternal, and one maternal

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19
Q

Random (independent) assortment

A

-Maternal & paternal chromosomes line up randomly along the equator in metaphase I
-Allows different combinations of chromosomes
-2ⁿ possibilities – 2²³= 8,388,608 possible gametes

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20
Q

Gametogenesis

A

The process of gamete production

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21
Q

Spermatogenesis

A

Meiosis results in 4 daughter cells of equal size which eventually develop into 4 mature sperm cells

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22
Q

Oogenesis

A

Meiosis results in unequal distribution of cytoplasm amongst the 4 daughter cells thus resulting in only 1 viable egg cell

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23
Q

Prophase I

Study These Flashcards
A

-Chromatin condense into chromatids and pair off into sister chromatids held by a centromere
-Homologous sister chromatids pair together
-Centrioles move to opposite poles of the cell
-Spindle fibres attach to centrioles
-Nuclear membrane fades and dissolves to allow for separation of the chromosomes and cell organelles
-Crossing over occurs

24
Q

Metaphase I

Study These Flashcards
A

-Tetrads move towards the middle of the cell/equatorial plate
-Spindle fibres align them into position

25
Anaphase I
-Tetrads divide -The chromosomes pull apart and move to opposite poles of the cell
26
Telophase I & Cytokinesis I
-Chromosomes reach opposite poles of the cell, begin to lengthen & relax -Spindle fibres dissolve -Nuclear membrane begins to form around each new mass of chromatin -Cytoplasm divides -1 cell is now 2
27
Prophase II
-Chromatin condense into chromatids and pair off into sister chromatids held by a centromere -In animal cells the centrioles move to opposite poles of the cell -Spindle fibres attach to centrioles -Nuclear membrane fades and dissolves to allow for separation of the chromosomes and cell organelles
28
Metaphase II
-Sister chromatids move towards the middle of the cell/equatorial plate -Spindle fibres align the pairs into position
29
Anaphase II
-Centromeres divide -The sister chromatids pull apart and move to opposite poles of the cell
30
Telophase II & Cytokinesis II
-Chromosomes reach opposite poles of the cell, begin to lengthen & relax -Spindle fibres dissolve -Nuclear membrane begins to form around each new mass of chromatin -Division of the cytoplasm -Cells are now separate -4 cells total
31
Determining the gender of offspring in humans
-Males determine the gender -All eggs carry 1 X chromosome -Half of sperm carry 1 X chromosome -Half of sperm carry 1 Y chromosome
32
Properties & effects of errors during meiosis
-Errors can occur during crossing over/prophase I, or during separation of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids -Most of the time gametes don’t survive -All cells will contain the error b/c all cells come from that one zygote
33
Types of errors during meiosis
1. Change in chromosome structure 2. Change to chromosome number
34
Errors in chromosome structure
-During crossing over, chemical bonds that hold DNA together are broken, but not re-formed correctly, or non-homologous pairs may cross over. -Errors in chromosome structure include: (DDIT) -Deletion – piece of chromosome is deleted -Duplication – a section of chromosome appears 2 or more times in a row -Inversion – a section of chromosome is inverted/ backwards -Translocation – a piece of one chromosome detaches and gets added to another one
35
Nondisjunction disorders
One pair of homologous chromosomes doesn’t separate during anaphase I Result: -Half of the gametes have 1 chromosome too few -Other half have one chromosome too many -Nondisjunction occurs more often when the mother is pregnant over 35
36
Amniocentesis
-Recommended for all pregnant women over 35 -Fetal cells removed with a needle from amniotic fluid -Karyotype of fetal cells examined for non-disjunction disorders
37
Aneuploidy
-Having too few or too many chromosomes -Occur when a normal gamete (n=23) joins with a gamete that has: -n+1(24) – trisomy – child will have 47 chromosomes -n-1(22) – monosomy – child will have 45 chromosomes
38
Down syndrome
-Trisomy 21 (extra chromosome on the 21st pair) -Developmental delays -Short -Folds around eyes -Stubby fingers -Large/protruding tongue -Weak muscles -Heart defects
39
Klinefelter’s syndrome
-XXY male -Tall -Smaller testicles -Might have breasts -Sterile
40
Turner’s syndrome
-XO -Female -Short -Thick neck -Will never go through puberty -Sterile
41
Artificial insemination
The process by which sperm are collected and concentrated, before being introduced into the female’s reproductive system
42
Embryo Transfer
The process by which an egg that has been fertilized artificially is transferred into a recipient female’s uterus
43
ART
Assisted reproductive technologies -Sperm is collected, concentrated, and introduced into the woman’s vagina
44
IVF
In vitro fertilization -Helps those with blocked fallopian tubes conceive -The immature egg is retrieved from the patient, then fertilized in lab glassware. -Sperm may be injected directly into the egg
45
PGD
Preimplantation genetic diagnosis -IVF is performed -Wait 2 days for zygotes to divide, one cell from each developing embryo is tested -Healthy embryos implanted
46
Cloning
Produces identical copies of genes, cells, or organisms
47
Gene cloning
Using DNA manipulation techniques to produce multiple copies of a single gene or segment of DNA -ex. human insulin was created in bacteria by cloning the human insulin gene
48
Stages of cloning a gene in bacteria
1. Isolate the segment of DNA to clone, choose a vector for cloning. Vectors act as carriers of the DNA. Common vector is a plasmid 2. Insert the DNA into the vector. Reagents cut and join different DNA pieces together. Resulting DNA is called RECOMBINANT DNA 3.Transformation – treat foreign cells so that they take in the recombinant DNA.
49
Therapeutic cloning
The process of replacing an egg cell’s nucleus with the nucleus from a somatic donor cell of genetically identical cells. Uses SCNT – somatic cell nuclear transfer
50
Reproductive cloning
The process of producing genetically identical organisms. Uses SCNT – somatic cell nuclear transfer
51
Mendel’s three laws
-Law of Dominance -A dominant train can ‘mask’ a recessive one -Law of Segregation -Each offspring inherits two alleles for each trait, which segregate during formation of sex cells. -Each gamete has only 1 allele -Law of Independent Assortment -Different characteristics are inherited independently of one another
52
Incomplete dominance
The two traits mix like paint to form an average of the two. I.e red flower and white flower making pink flower.
53
Co-dominance
The two traits are both fully expressed, and is also referred to as a ROAN. The child is speckled/spotted. I.e. all brown cow and all white cow make a specked brown and white cow.
54
Multiple alleles
More than 2 alleles for the trait. Ex. blood types
55
Human genome project
Consisted of scientists sequencing the entire human genome, making multiple discoveries along the way

Biology 11 (14 decks)

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