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Geography Mock p1 Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the secondary hazards of an earthquake?

A

Tsunami, Liquefaction, Landslides

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2
Q

How does a tsunami occur?

A

Oceanic crust jolted during an earthquake( or volcanic eruption or underwater landslide), causing all the water above to be displaced, and pulled down due to the force of gravity. Energy is transferred to water and travels as a wave. At the start, it has a low amplitude and travels fast. Closer to the coast as the sea level decreases, friction is created between sea bed and waves. The wave slows down and gains height.

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3
Q

Where are tsunamis generally generated?

A

Subduction zones at convergent boundaries.

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4
Q

Where on Earth do tsunamis generally occur and which continents are most vulnerable?

A

Pacific ring of fire. Asia and Oceania most vulnerable.

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5
Q

What are factors that affect the impact of a tsunami?

A

Pop density (more people= bigger effect)
Coastal defences (more defences= less impact)
Wave amplitude
Distance travelled
Gradient of continental shelf (steeper= bigger tsunami)
Shape of land ( bays funnel/ concentrate tsunami waves)
Warning & evacuation systems (less impact)
Economic and human development (less impact)

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6
Q

Tohuku case study

A

primary hazard- earthquake
secondary hazards- tsunami and liquefaction
11th march 2011
16,000 deaths
9.2 magnitude (equivalent to 600 atomic bombs)
MEDC
6,000 injured
111 hospitals destroyed and sendai airport rendered unusable
aid limited as a result
10 mins for tsunami to reach Japan
millions without electricity due to nuclear power meltdown

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7
Q

Indian ocean case study

A

primary hazard- earthquake
secondary hazard- tsunami
26th December 2004
9.1 magnitude
220,000 deaths
12 countries affected- many LEDCs including India, Maldives, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Sri Lanka
650,000 injured
200,000 homeless
spreads of diseases e.g cholera
immediate responses- fresh water, water purification tablets, food, sheeting and tents
uk gov promised £75 million in aid, £100 million raised in donations
long term responses-
Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning system implemented in 2006
plans spending nearly £200 million to rebuild homes

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8
Q

What is liquefaction and what can it cause?

A

Liquefaction is the water moisture within the soil separating from the soil particles and rising to the surface
Can cause building subsidence and landslides

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9
Q

Christchurch case study

A

New Zealand
MEDC
6.3 magnitude
185 deaths- 80 as a result of a fallen building
Liquefaction
$40 billion in damage
1 in 5 lost their job
infrastructure sunken into the ground

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10
Q

What is a landslide?

A

A landslide is unconsolidated material or loose rocks collapsing as a result of shaking caused by an earthquake, weakening cliff faces hills and snow materials

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11
Q

What factors affect the impact of a landslide?

A

Topography, rainfall, soil and land use

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12
Q

Nepal case study

A

Earthquake- primary
Landslide- secondary
28th April 2015
7.8 magnitude
9,000 deaths
landslide caused villages to be buried under rubble

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13
Q

What are primary volcanic hazards?

A

Lava flows, Pyroclastic flows, Tephra and ash flows, Volcanic gases

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14
Q

What are secondary volcanic hazards?

A

Lahars, Jokulhaup, Acid rain

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15
Q

What is a pyroclastic flow?

A

Mixture of hot dense rock, lava, ash, and gases which move at high speed along the surface. Extremely dangerous- causes asphyxiation.

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16
Q

What is a lahar?

A

Combination of mud, rock and water which travel quickly down the sides of volcanoes. Occurs when eruption causes snow and ice to melt, or eruption coincides with rainfall.

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17
Q

What is a Jokulhaup?

A

snow and ice in glaciers melt after an eruption causing sudden floods.

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18
Q

What are the 4 erosional processes?

A

Hydraulic Action, Abrasion, Attrition and Corrosion

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19
Q

What is hydraulic action?

A

Hydraulic action is a large destructive wave breaking on a cliff, and the force of water exerts pressure, loosening pieces of rocks

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20
Q

What is attrition?

A

boulders, rock particles and pebbles colliding with each other.

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20
Q

What is corrosion?

A

Sea water and salt spray from waves react with rock minerals and actively dissolve them. Rock minerals carried with solution within sea water.

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20
Q

What is abrasion?

A

Destructive waves pick up sand, pebbles and/ or boulders and are thrown against a cliff

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20
Q

What is weathering and what are the 3 types?

A

Weathering is the break down of rock leading to the transfer of material into the littoral zone, where it becomes input to sediment cells.
Mechanical, Chemical, biological

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20
Q

What are sub aerial processes?

A

Weathering and mass movement

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21
what is mechanical weathering and what are the 3 types?
Mechanical weathering is the breakdown of rock due to physical exertion Freeze-thaw: Water enters cracks in rocks and freezes, causing it to expand, and increase pressure. Weakens cliff. Salt crystallisation: Sea water evaporates, leaving salt behind. Crystals grow and exert pressure, casing cracks to widen Wetting and drying: clay expands when wet and contracts when dried, cycle causes rocks to break up
22
what is chemical weathering and what are the 3 types?
Chemical weathering is the breakdown of rocks via chemical processes/ reactions Carbonation: rainwater absorbs C02 creating weak carbonic acid, which reacts with calcium carbonate in rocks to form calcium bicarbonate. This is easily dissolved allowing erosion. Oxidation: minerals become exposed to air via cracks and fissures, mineral will become oxidised which will increase its volume, causing rock to crumble Solution: rock minerals such as rock salt are dissolved
23
what is biological weathering and what are the 3 types?
Biological weathering is the breakdown of plants via plants, bacteria and animals 1) Plant roots- plant roots growing into cracks, causing rock to split 2)Birds- puffins dig burrows into cliffs making erosion more likely 3) seaweed acids- contain sulphuric acids that dissolve rock minerals
24
What are the 2 types of categories for mass movement?
Flows- material flows and mixes slides- sediment keeps its same place in material, moving downhill
25
Explain the 3 mass movement flows
soil creep- slowest but continuous movement of soil particles downhill solifluction- in tundra areas, top layer thaws but permafrost stays frozen. surface layers flow over frozen. mudflows- increase in water content of soil can reduce friction, leading to earth and mud to flow over underlying bedrock
26
Explain the three mass movement slides
Rock falls- sloped cliffs when exposed to mechanical weathering causes rock to fall Rock slides- water between joints and bedding planes can reduce friction and lead to more sliding Slumps- soil saturated with water, causing rotation movement of soft materials
27
Name examples of coastal erosional landforms
Caves, arches stacks & stumps Wave cut notch Wave cut platform Retreating cliffs Blowhole
28
How is a cave, arch, stack and stump formed?
Crack formed by hydraulic action and abrasion Waves continue to erode crack into a cave through hydraulic action and abrasion Cave becomes larger and eventually breaks through headland to form an arch Base of arch becomes wider, and roof becomes too heavy and collapses into the sea leaving a stack Stack undercut at base until it collapses to form a stump
29
How is a wave cut notch formed?
Destructive waves reach base of cliff, causing abrasion and hydraulic action to wear away rock. curved- wave cut notch forms along base of cliff
30
How is wave-cut platform formed?
Cliff is eroded at the base, leaving the rock above unsupported and eventually collapses. The cliff retreats and leaves a flat or sloping area.
31
How are retreating cliffs formed?
Caused by waves undercutting the land at high tide, or constantly if there is no beach. As cliffs undercut, gravity causes mass movement in unsupported rock.
32
How are blowholes formed?
A pothole on top of a cliff created by chemical weathering and a cave formed by erosion. Cave erodes deeper into cliff face and pothole deepens, they may meet.
33
What is longshore drift?
Longshore drift transports sediment along a beach and between sediment cells. The waves hit the beach at an angle determined by prevailing winds (swash) and gravity causes sediment to be carried back down the beach at right angles (back swash)
34
What are the 4 transportation processes?
Traction, Saltation, Suspension, Solution
35
What is traction?
Large, heavy sediment rolls along sea bed
36
What is saltation?
Smaller sediment bounces along sea bed
37
What is suspension?
Small sediment carried within water
38
What is solution?
dissolved material is carried within water
39
What is swash-aligned transportation?
Swash-aligned transportation is when wave crests approach parallel to coast so limited LSD. Sediment doesn't travel far.
40
What is drift-aligned transportation?
Waves approach at significant angle, so LSD causes sediment to travel far up the beach
41
Name examples of depositional landforms
Spits, Bars, Tombolo, Cuspate Foreland, Offshore bars and sand dunes
42
What is a spit and how is it formed?
A spit is a narrow strip of land formed due to deposition. Formed by LSD moving sediment, waves lose energy due to sheltered area or gap in coastline and deposit their sediment
43
When prevailing winds change direction what forms on a spit?
Hook
43
What forms behind a spit?
Saltmarsh
44
What is a bar?
A spit crosses a bay and links up two headlands
45
What is the water within a bar called?
A lagoon
46
What is a tombolo?
A tombolo is a bar or beach that connects the mainland to an offshore island
47
What is a cuspate foreland and how is it formed?
Cuspate forelands are low lying triangular shaped headlands, extending out from a shoreline, formed from deposited sediment. LSD along each side of a headland will create beaches, and where they meet creates a cuspate foreland.
48
What is an offshore bar and where is it formed?
Region offshore where sand is deposited, as the waves don't have enough energy to carry to shore.
49
How are sand dunes formed?
Prevailing wings blow sediment to the back of the beach. Develop as a process of vegetation succession.
50
What are the characteristics of a high energy coastline?
Frequent destructive waves, larger fetch, have rocky headlands and landforms. the rate of erosion exceeds rate of deposition
51
What are the characteristics of a low-energy coastline?
Constructive waves, sandy areas. Depositional landforms. Rate of deposition exceeds rate of erosion.
52
What do the size of waves depend on?
Strength of wind Fetch distance Water depth
53
What are the characteristics of a constructive wave?
Strong swash, weak back swash Low wave height, long wavelength Low frequency Depositional
54
What are the characteristics of a destructive wave?
A destructive wave has a strong back swash, weak swash High wave height, short wavelength High frequency Erosional
55
What causes short term sea level change?
High tide and low tide is caused by the gravitational pull of the moon wind strength and direction cause change in sea level for minutes When there is low atmospheric pressure there is a higher sea level
56
What is isostatic sea level change and what causes it?
Isostatic is localised sea level change and is caused by post glacial adjustment and tectonic activity. Glaciers cause land to subside until the ice melts. Southern England subsiding and Scotland rebounding
57
What is Eustatic sea level change and what causes it?
Eustatic sea level change is global sea level change and is caused by increased temps causing thermal expansion and rising sea levels. Increased global warming means higher sea levels.
58
What is coastalisation?
Movement of people towards the coast
59
When do storm surges occur?
Storm surges occur as a result of temp sea level change due to low pressure associated with a depression or tropical cyclone.
60
What exacerbates the effects of a storm surge?
The subsidence of land Removing natural vegetation (no natural defence) e.g mangroves removed for tourism industry Global warming- surface of oceans get warmer, frequency and intensity of storms will increase
61
What are the consequences of living on the coast?
Many insurance companies won't insure houses due to likelihood of them being destroyed or flooded Loss of culture and homes
62
What is an environmental refugee?
When someone has to move as a result of climate change Loss of culture and homes
63
Explain the 2 types of coastal management
Soft- works with natural processes and uses natural methods to protect against sea level change and erosion. Usually cheaper but not as effective Hard- man made to prevent erosion, works against natural processes. Expensive but effective. Can increase erosion down the coast
64
What are the 4 different approaches to management in SMPs?
Hold the line- defences remain to keep shore where it is Managed realignment- coastline moves inward naturally but is managed Advance the line- defences built to move shore outwards Do nothing- no defences and coast erodes
65
What are the factors looked at when deciding what approaches to use?
Economic value of assets that could be protected Technical feasibility of engineering solutions Ecological or cultural value of land (SSSIs or ESAs)
66
What does SSSI stand for?
Site of scientific interest
67
What does ESA stand for?
Environmentally sensitive areas
68
What are the three types of plans used in coastal decision making?
Cost- benefit analysis (CBA) Integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) Shoreline management plans (SMPs)
69
What is a cost-benefit analysis?
cost involved (e.g construction, demolition, maintenance) compared to expected benefits (e.g value of land saved, homes and businesses protected) Benefits must outweigh the costs for plan to go ahead
70
What is integrated coastal zone management?
A sediment cell is a managed as a whole meaning management between different councils has to occur. An ICZM recognises the importance of the coast for people's livelihoods, and that the plan must be sustainable, and economic development must come at a cost of the environment Must involve all stakeholders, plan for the long term and work with natural processes
71
What are shoreline management plans?
The coast is broken into sediment cells in which the issues affecting the coast such as land use, environmental protection, economics and coastal processes are taken into account. 4 strategies- Do Nothing - Carry out no coastal defence activity except for safety measures Hold the Line - By intervention, hold the existing defence where it is Advance the Line - By intervention, to move the existing defence seaward Retreat the Line (Managed Retreat) - By intervention, to move the existing defence landward
72
Name examples of hard engineering
Offshore breakwater, Groynes, sea walls, rip rap, revetments
73
What is an offshore breakwater and what are the advantages? disadvantages?
Rock barrier which forces waves to break before reaching the shore Advantages- effective at reducing waves' energy Disadvantages- visually unappealing navigation hazard for boats can interfere with LSD
74
What is a groyne and what are the advantages and disadvantages?
Timber/ rock protrusions that trap sediment from LSD Advantages- builds up beach, protecting cliff and increasing tourist potential cost effective Disadvantages- visually unappealing deprives areas downwind of sediment increasing erosion elsewhere
75
What is a sea wall and what are the advantages and disadvantages?
A sea wall is a concrete structure that absorbs and reflects wave energy (recurved sea wall has curved surface) Advantages- effective erosion prevention promenade has tourism benefits Disadvantages- visually unappealing expensive to construct and maintain wave energy reflected elsewhere
76
What is rock armour (rip rap) and what are the advantages and disadvantages?
They are large rocks that reduce wave energy, but allow water to flow through Advantages- cost effective Disadvantages- rocks are sourced from elsewhere, doesn't fit local geology pose a hazard if climbed upon
77
What are revetments and what are the advantages or disadvantages?
A wooden or concrete ramp that helps absorb wave energy Advantages- cost effective Disadvantages- Visually unappealing Needs constant maintenance Affects tourism as its on the beach
78
Name examples of soft engineering strategies
Beach Nourishment, Cliff regrading and drainage, dune stabilisation, marsh creation
79
What is beach nourishment and what are the advantages or disadvantages?
sediment is taken from offshore sources to build up beach advantages- builds up beach, protecting cliff and increasing tourist potential cost effective and looks natural disadvantages- needs constant maintenance dredging may have consequences on local coastal habitats
80
What is cliff regrading and drainage, what are the advantages/ disadvantages?
reduces the angle of the cliff to help stabilise it advantages- cost effective disadvantages- may collapse suddenly as the cliff is drier leading to rock fall (hazard) may look unnatural
81
What is dune stabilisation and what are the advantages and disadvantages?
Marram grass planted. Roots help bind the dunes, protecting land behind Advantages- cost effective creates wildlife habitat disadvantage- planting is time consuming process
82
What is marsh creation and what are the advantages and disadvantages?
Managed retreat allowing low lying areas to flood Advantages- creates an important wildlife habitat Disadvantages- Farmers lose land and may need compensation as a result
83
Who are winners of coastal management?
Those who benefit economically (e.g house protected), environmentally (e.g habitat protected) and socially(keep job)
84
Who are losers of coastal management?
Losers are those who lose their job, property or have to relocate. Also the people who's areas have worsening erosion due to coastal management in a another area.
85
Case Study: Holderness Coast
Fastest eroding coastline in North-West Europe 1.7m eroded/ annum do nothing and hold the line approach coastal protection at Bridlington, Hornsea, Mappleton, Withernsea and Easington Due to tourism, homes, the fishing industry or gas terminals 2 SSI sites Brid- sea walls and groynes Hornsea- sea walls, groynes, rock armour Withernsea- sea walls, groynes and rock armouring Easington- revetment Mappleton- groynes, rock armour and revetment

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