Geography unit 3 Flashcards
(180 cards)
1
Q
What are two factors creating a shrinking world for migrants
A
Transport and communication advancements
2
Q
Give 3 examples of transport developments
A
1800s - 9000km Trans-siberian railway across Russia
1960s - Boeing 747
1990s - low cost airlines e.g EasyJet
3
Q
What was the effect on migration of the Trans-siberian railway
A
Migration to Siberia doubled from 1896 - 1904
4
Q
What was the effect on migration of the Boeing 747
A
People could fly direct from New York to Tokyo
5
Q
What are two results of migration that exacerbate inequalities
A
Remittances
Brain drain
6
Q
Remittances case study
A
Indian workers in UAE send $15 billion home yearly
7
Q
Brain drain case study
A
Haiti and Jamaica - 80% of highly educated workforce migrate to other countries
8
Q
Name 2 UK political polices affecting migration
A
Brexit 2016
Points-based system 2021
9
Q
Was Brexit successful in reducing immigration
A
Brexit reduced EU immigration but increased non-EU immigration
Changed the composition of migration not the volume
10
Q
What is the Points-based system predicted to do
A
Reduce EU immigration by 70%
11
Q
How many refugees has the Syrian conflict created
A
6 million since 2011
12
Q
How many Syrian refugees are in Turkey compared to Spain and what is this an example of
A
3 million in Turkey, 16,000 in Spain
Distance decay
13
Q
How much money do Syrian refugees cost Turkey
A
$4.5 billion
14
Q
How have Ugandan refugees helped the economy
A
Created 30,000 jobs in Leicester since 1972
15
Q
What percentage of refugees are hosted in LICs and middle income countries
A
71%
16
Q
How many people are displaced each year due to conflict
A
10 million
17
Q
How many people are displaced each year due to natural disasters
A
24 million
18
Q
What percentage of displacement caused by natural disasters were weather related
A
92%
19
Q
What are the 3 main push factors for migration
A
Extreme poverty
Primary commodity prices
Poor access to markets
20
Q
What is extreme poverty defined as
A
Less than US $1.90 a day
21
Q
Example of where low primary commodity prices are driving migration
A
Ghana and cocoa plantations
Causes economic instability
22
Q
What is causing poor access to markets
A
Trade blocs e.g EU put import tariffs on food imported from outside the bloc, making it hard for countries like Kenya to sell goods unless the price is reduced.
23
Q
What caused mass migration in Europe in 2004
A
Free movement - 8 Eastern European countries joined the EU
24
Q
How many people migrated to the UK in 2004 from Europe
A
1 million
25
Name 4 reasons why many Polish people migrated to the UK in 2004
Guaranteed minimum wage
Established diaspora (since WWII)
Removal of intervening obstacles after 2004 (ending of visa restrictions on entry to the UK)
Polish GDP per capita was 2/5 that of the UK
26
What is the core principle of the 1951 Refugee Convention
Non-refoulement (refugees must not be returned to danger)
27
How many countries have signed the 1951 Refugee Convention
149
28
How many UN countries have not signed the 1951 Refugee Convention
44
29
What is the aim of the 1954 Stateless Persons Convention
Give stateless people a minimum set of human rights, including the right to education, employment and housing
30
What does the UNHCR (UN Refugee Agency) do
Oversees the implementation of the Refugee Convention. Works with WHO to provide camps, health care, shelter.
31
How is the UNHCR funded
Donations from governments (USA is the largest donor)
32
What are 2 examples of NGOs that are tackling the refugee crisis
Amnesty International advocates for persecuted groups
Refugee Action provides support and advice for refugees settling in the UK
33
Which EU country has taken in the most refugees
Germany
34
What are challenges created in host countries by migration and globalisation
Pollution
Housing
35
Pollution case study
22 of the world's most polluted cities are in India
Great Smog of Delhi (2017) - particulate levels were 10x the safe limit
36
Housing case study
700,000 people live in the Dharavi slum
37
Ageing population case study
UK - number of people over the age of 65 has increased by 50% over the last 40 years
38
What are 3 push factors driving rural to urban migration
Agricultural modernisation
Poverty
Population growth - not enough jobs
39
What are EPZs
Export Processing Zones (EPZs) - created by national governments to attract FDI and help integrate cities into the global supply chain as MNCs can outsource/offshore their manufacturing to EPZs in emerging economies to cut production costs
40
How many people lived in cities in 1980 compared to 2025
2 billion in 1980
4.5 billion in 2025
41
What is the definition of a megacity
Population over 10 million
42
How many megacities were there in 1970 compared to 2023
3 in 1970
33 in 2023
43
Counter urbanisation case study
1951-2011, Inner London lost over 450,000 residents, while Outer London gained more than 400,000
44
What 2 factors are growing megacities
Rural-urban migration
Natural increase (young migrants = high birth rate)
45
Name 2 organisations that regulate marine use
UNCLOS (United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea)
International Maritime Organisation
46
What are EEZs
Exclusive Economic Zone
Since 1982, gives coastal states rights over abiotic and biotic ocean resources up to 200 nautical miles from their shore.
47
Name a regulation introduced by the IMO
1992 all new oil tankers must have double hulls to prevent spillages, older single-hull tankers phased out by 2015.
48
How much of the world's oil travels through 7 major chokepoints
50%
49
How much does piracy cost annually
$10 billion
50
Give 2 examples of piracy hotspots and how they have been managed
Somali coast - A piracy hotspot in 2008–2012, now reduced due to NATO naval patrols.
Strait of Malacca - Critical trade routes between Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore; high risk of armed robbery, but improved due to regional cooperation.
51
How are ship owners reducing the risk of piracy
Water cannons, new routes and driving at faster speeds.
52
Suez canal case study
In Egypt, links Europe and Asia
The 2021 Ever Given ship incident showed how a single grounded ship can block the canal, disrupting 12% of global trade.
53
Panama canal case study
In Panama, links Atlantic and Pacific
As a high-tech, automated canal, it is vulnerable to cyberattacks
Climate change has caused droughts, affecting water levels and reducing the number of ships that can pass.
54
What percentage of products produced by MNCs are moved using container shipping
90%
55
Define people trafficking
The illegal movement of people, typically involving force, coercion, or deception, for the purpose of exploitation.
56
Example of people trafficking
West African migrants trafficked into European fishing fleets, where they're underpaid and abused, sometimes amounting to modern slavery.
57
Define smuggling
The illegal transportation of people across borders, usually with their consent, in exchange for money. Drugs, weapons, and counterfeit goods can also be smuggled e.g along Europe’s 70,000 km of coastline.
58
Smuggling case study
The Mediterranean
- migrants fleeing conflict, poverty, and persecution from North Africa and the Middle East into Southern Europe. Operation Sophia (EU naval mission) aimed to disrupt migrant smuggling networks, although it was criticized for its limitations and was discontinued in 2020.
59
Sea cable damaged by a dropped anchor example
In 2008, a ship’s anchor cut a major internet cable, Asia lost 75% of its internet capacity.
60
Sea cable sabotage example
2024 - cable between Finland and Germany severed, took 15 days to repair
61
Name 2 regulations introduced in the UK to manage marine waste
2018 microbead ban
2011 plastic bag charge
62
What was the result of the 2011 plastic bag charge
95% reduction in plastic bag sales
63
Name 2 NGOs involved in reducing marine waste
Ocean cleanup
Greenpeace
64
What are some ocean resources
Biotic e.g fish and abiotic e.g oil, gas
Manganese nodules for steel and iron manufacturing
65
What fraction of oil and gas comes from offshore sources
1/3
66
What are manganese nodules
Found on the seafloor, especially in the eastern Pacific Ocean (an area the size of Europe). Linked to hydrothermal activity. Grow very slowly—2mm per million years.
67
Why is there tension around the Arctic ocean
It holds an estimated 90 billion barrels of oil
68
Why is there tension around the Falkland islands
UK-Argentina war 1982
UK declared EEZ around the islands, close to Argentina’s coast.
69
How many countries are landlocked
45
70
How many of the world's 15 poorest countries are landlocked
8
71
How is the UN supporting landlocked countries
Transit transport corridors like Trans-African Highway Network (links countries like Uganda and Zambia to ports in Kenya and Tanzania).
72
Resource inequality indigenous community case study
The Lummi Nation (in Washington, USA) have treaty rights to fish for salmon in their traditional waters, but habitat destruction, overfishing by commercial fleets, and dams are resulting in declining salmon populations.
73
Name 3 sources of ocean pollution
Terrestrial run off
Waste disposal
Oil spills
74
Name 2 consequences of ocean pollution
Eutrophic dead zones
Plastic garbage patches
75
How much of untreated sewage water contains microplastics
100%
76
Oil spill case study
2010 Gulf of Mexico
200 million gallons spilled
170,000 sea turtles killed
77
How many eutrophic dead zones are there
20
78
How much plastic enters the ocean every year
8 million tons
79
Plastic garbage patch case study
North Pacific Garbage Patch covers an area of 1.6 million km².
80
How do plastic garbage patches form
Ocean gyres (large ocean currents) concentrate plastic into giant patches.
81
Define global commons
Planetary resources so large in scale that they lie outside of the political reach of any one state
82
What are the 4 global commons
The oceans, the atmosphere, Antarctica and outer space
83
Whaling ban case study
Introduced in 1986
Whales are now an economic asset through tourism.
However Scientific Whaling and Aboriginal Subsistence Whaling still occurs and Norway, Iceland and Japan do not follow the ban.
84
Overfishing case study
Newfoundland Grand Banks (Canada 1992).
Fish were being caught more quickly than the natural replacement rate, resulting in the entire fish stock collapsing.
Cod biomass had dropped by over 90%.
30,000–40,000 jobs lost overnight
85
What does the EU’s Common Fisheries Policy do
Aims to conserve European fish stocks. ‘Total allowable catches’ (TACs) are calculated for all major fish stocks to limit the number fishermen are allowed to take.
86
What are 2 local actions taken to manage marine environments
No-take zones - Areas where fishing or extraction is banned. There are 3 in the UK e.g Lundy Island.
Farmed fish (e.g., salmon, cod) to reduce pressure on wild populations.
87
What are the conflicting policies on oil drilling in Alaska
Obama: Protected 12 million acres of Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR).
Trump: Supported increased oil production.
88
How has the commercial whaling ban affected the Arctic Bowhead whale population
Population is recovering at a rate of 3% annually
89
What is globalisation?
The increasing connectivity between people, places and environment across the planet.
90
What are the key global flows?
Goods
Money - Investment and remittances.
People - Migration, tourism
Technology - Spread of innovations, transport, and communications.
Ideas - Cultural diffusion through media, education, and internet.
91
Refugee definition
A refugee is forced to move due to fear of persecution, or death from conflict or natural hazards.
92
What is brain drain?
The loss of highly-qualified workers from a country due to migration for better opportunities.
93
What is an Internally Displaced Person (IDP)?
A person forced to leave their home but remains within their country's borders.
94
What are common consequences of refugee movement for host countries?
* Economic pressure on resources.
* Security concerns.
* Integration challenges.
95
What are some challenges faced by fast-growing megacities?
* Social sustainability issues (e.g. housing challenges).
* Environmental sustainability problems (e.g. pollution).
* Economic sustainability concerns (e.g. reliance on informal sector work).
96
What are the consequences of conflict-driven displacement?
* Fleeing with no possessions or money.
* Overcrowded refugee camps.
* Long-term inequality for children missing education.
97
What does the Universal Declaration of Human Rights state regarding refugees?
States must provide the right to seek asylum.
98
What is the estimated number of refugees and Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) globally?
60 million people displaced, with 40 million IDPs and 20 million refugees.
99
What is the main aim of the United Nations (UN)?
To maintain peace, uphold international law, promote human rights & sustainable development.
100
How many members does the United Nations (UN) have?
193 members.
101
What does the European Union (EU) consist of?
A political and economic union of 27 northern hemisphere states with its own currency and parliament.
102
What is NATO?
An intergovernmental military alliance made up of 30 North American and European countries.
103
What does UNCLOS stand for?
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.
104
How many states have signed UNCLOS?
168 states.
105
What are oil transit chokepoints?
Narrow channels along widely used global sea routes.
106
What is the carbon cycle?
A closed system made up of linked inputs, outputs, stores and flows.
107
Define 'stores' in the context of the carbon cycle.
Amount of carbon held in a particular part of the global system.
108
What is 'residence time'?
The average length of time carbon remains in a store.
109
What are 'flows' in the carbon cycle?
Movements and transfers between the stores.
110
What does 'mass balance' refer to in the carbon cycle?
At a global scale, the total amount of carbon is conserved over time.
111
What is a fast carbon flow example?
Fossil fuel combustion releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
112
Define 'carbon sequestration'.
Carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere and held in solid or liquid form.
113
What is respiration in the context of the carbon cycle?
Living organisms release carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere as a byproduct of breaking down sugars for energy.
114
How does decomposition affect the carbon cycle?
It breaks down dead organic matter, releasing carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
115
What is an example of chemical weathering?
Carbon dioxide dissolves in rainwater producing weak carbonic acid.
116
What is the 'physical pump' in the carbon cycle?
Diffusion of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to the ocean.
117
What is the 'biological pump'?
Phytoplankton absorb carbon dioxide through photosynthesis, transferring it along the food chain.
118
Which biome stores the most carbon globally?
Boreal/coniferous forests store more carbon globally.
119
What is the average net primary productivity (NPP) of tropical rainforests?
Around 2500 grams per square metre per year.
120
How much carbon do temperate grasslands store per hectare above ground?
0.5-2.5 tons of carbon.
121
What is the impact of deforestation on carbon storage?
It removes the carbon biomass store and reduces inputs.
122
What was the Dust Bowl?
USA 1920s where wind erosion stripped the topsoil from 65 million hectares of over-cultivated land.
123
What is peat?
Peat is partially decomposed vegetation, e.g Sphagnum moss, that has been slowly compressed to form thick layers of carbon-rich material. Decomposition is prevented by a waterlogged environment which creates anaerobic conditions, limiting microbial activity.
124
What is the net accumulation of carbon in undisturbed peatland?
1mm a year.
125
How much carbon is stored in peat globally?
650 GtC.
126
What does drainage do to peatlands?
It increases the rate of decomposition and encourages erosion and fire.
127
How do fen peatlands form
Where groundwater meets the surface
128
What human activities increase atmospheric carbon storage?
* Fossil fuel use
* Deforestation
* Cement manufacturing
* Enhanced methane emissions
129
What percentage of global greenhouse gas emissions is produced by electricity and heat production?
25%.
130
What is the Earths energy budget?
The balance between incoming shortwave solar radiation and outgoing solar radiation.
131
How has the Earth's energy budget changed over the last 40 years?
The Earth has absorbed more incoming solar energy than it has emitted back into space. The oceans have absorbed 90% of this excess energy
132
What is desertification?
Land becoming drier and degraded due to climate change and human activities.
133
Define negative feedback in environmental systems.
Adjustments that lessen or cancel out the effects of initial disruptions.
134
What is a system threshold?
The critical limit that must not be crossed to avoid irreversible changes.
135
What happens in positive feedback regarding sea ice melting?
Melting ice reveals the darker ocean, which absorbs more heat and accelerates further melting.
136
What is the impact of rising temperatures on seawater's ability to absorb CO2?
Warmer water is less effective at absorbing CO2.
137
How much ice mass did Greenland lose between 1992 and 2020?
3.8 trillion tons.
138
What is the primary source of methane emissions?
Agricultural activities.
139
What is the projected impact of climate change on the UK water cycle?
Increased vulnerability to water stress and variations in precipitation.
140
What is the role of glaciers in the water cycle?
They provide meltwater to major rivers each summer.
141
Fill in the blank: The re-wetting of drained peatlands can be achieved using a _______.
[dam system]
142
What is the impact of ocean acidification?
It negatively impacts coral and marine ecosystem health.
143
Where do blanket peatlands occur
Hill tops fed entirely by rainfall and snowmelt
144
What land area does boreal forests cover
29%
145
What land area does tropical forests cover
6%
146
What percentage of all carbon is stored in plants
20% of carbon
147
What fraction of the world's plant species are found in the TRF
2/3 of the worlds species
148
What rainfall does the TRF experience
Convectional, 2000-3000mm annually, no dry season
149
Give 3 examples of TRFs
Amazon
African
Indo-Malaysian
150
Give 2 examples of temperate grasslands
North American Prairies
South Africa's Veld
151
How much carbon does the TRF store per hectare above ground
100-300 tons
152
Where are temperate grasslands found
30-50 degrees North and South
The leeward side of mountain ranges
153
What light do temperate grasslands experience
Concentrated sun rays in summer but only 6 hours of daylight in the winter
154
What temperatures do temperate grasslands experience
22 degrees C in the growing season but falls to -5 degrees C in winter
155
What precipitation do temperate grasslands experience
500mm annually plus winter snow build up
156
What temperatures do TRFs experience
High average annual temperatures, 25-30 degrees C
157
Deforestation case study
Amazon rainforest - 17,500 km2 per year
158
What are examples of slow carbon flows between land and ocean
Weathering, erosion and deposition over millions of years and at a continental scale.
159
How does the UK Forestry Commission contribute to afforestation
They use marginal areas of grassland and moorland to grow forest
160
What are the pros and cons of monoculture of commercial trees as a form of afforestation
Can increase carbon storage if it replaces grassland, however still stores less carbon than natural forest biome communities do because monoculture lacks biodiversity.
161
What is carbon offsetting
A way of compensating for emissions by funding an equivalent CO2 saving elsewhere e.g. planting a tree after taking an aeroplane flight.
162
To what extent have soil carbon levels fallen in farmed areas
Fallen by 50% compared with pre-agricultural periods.
163
How much land area do peatlands cover in the UK compared to the amount of soil carbon they store
Despite covering 3% of the land area in Wales, peatlands represent 30% of the total soil carbon storage.
164
Peatlands case study
The tropical peatlands of Indonesia are a product of low relief, impermeable rock and high rainfall. They store 60 billion tonnes of carbon.
165
How much carbon dioxide is released by the drainage, burning, cultivation and cutting of peatlands
2 billion tonnes
166
What percentage of UK soils are not degraded
20%
167
Why is the drainage of peatlands an issue
No longer waterlogged so peat dries and oxygen is introduced, increases rate of decomposition and encourages erosion and fire.
168
Peatlands re-establishment of a plant cover case study
The Southern Pennies in Yorkshire: reseeding of the landscape (using helicopters to drop seeds and fertiliser) to restore its original vegetation cover.
169
How much have carbon emissions risen by since 1750
From 280 ppm to 426 ppm.
170
UK floods example
Extreme high intensity rainfall in June 2017 led to flash floods which caused £3 billion damage particularly NE Scotland
171
By 2080 how many people are predicted to be flooded
986,300
172
What are the 3 factors impacting desertification
Climate change factors
Land use factors
Process interactions (vegetation loss, overland flow)
173
Define positive feedback
The knock-on effects in natural systems that act to accelerate and amplify any changes that have already started to occur after a disruption occurs.
174
What is the Cryosphere negative feedback loop example
Ice melts to expose the darker ocean, which absorbs more sunlight. As the ocean warms, there are increased levels of evaporation. This creates more clouds, which have a high albedo and reflect incoming solar radiation. As a result, less light reaches and is absorbed by the ocean surface. The temperature of the water falls, as does that of the air mass in contact with it.
175
Where is methane stored
In permafrost regions which covers 23 million km2
176
What is the methane positive feedback loop example
As the atmosphere warms, more permafrost melts releasing large amounts of methane. The atmosphere warms up even more quickly causing more permafrost to melt.
177
How does ocean acidification impact ecosystems
Ocean acidification could impact negatively on coral and marine ecosystem health in ways that reduce biological sequestration of CO2 in the oceans i.e. the biological pump may become less effective.
178
Define meteorological drought
A lack of precipitation
179
Define agricultural drought
A lack of soil moisture
180
Define hydrologic drought
Reduced streamflow or groundwater levels
