Global systems and global governance Flashcards

Question

Knowledge-intensive goods and services

Answer 1

Quaternary sector of an economy expanded by flows of information. They include things with intensive research and development (R&D) required with highly skilled and educated labour. - high tech products like pharmaceuticals - computer technology - business services like international law and accounting

Answer 2

The process of promoting, advertising and selling products or services

Answer 3

A company becoming a global marketeer means it views the world as one single market and produces products that fit various regional marketplaces. It develops a recognisable 'brand' and employs one marketing strategy to advertise the same or similar products to customers globally - Generates economies of scale reducing their costs

Answer 4

- Coca Cola Single product Minor elements tweaked for different market Uses same formulas for all its markets Bottle design recognisable in every country yet sizes and shapes conform to country's standard

Answer 5

Created by globalisation with two recognisable groups - The highly skilled, highly paid, decision making, research and managerial occupations largely concentrated in more developed countries - The unskilled, poorly paid assembly occupations located in newly industrialising countries with lower labour costs

Answer 6

The cost advantages that result from larger size, output or scale of an operation. - Savings made by spreading costs or by rationalising operations

Answer 7

Previously less economically developed - Developed their own industrial and commercial bases and markets for goods and services - TNCs also emerged from these countries extending their global influence (BRIC + tiger) - This is leading to the development of regions surrounding these new 'cores' particularly south east Asia

Answer 8

Four asian economies Hong Kong Singapore South Korea Taiwan

Answer 9

Over last 40 years, manufacturing has decentralised moving away from highly developed economies to emerging economies

Answer 10

- lower land and labour costs - government incentives (tax breaks, special economic zones) encouraging TNCs to invest and relocate production abroad - transfer of technology by TNCs enabling developing countries to increase productivity without raising wages

Answer 11

- availability of a skilled and educated workforce - opportunity to built new plants with latest and most productive technology - access to large markets without tariff barriers - availability of infrastructure like power supply, roads and ports

Answer 12

- encourage TNCs to invest in deindustrialised regions by offering incentives - encourage investment in skills and technology to upgrade manufacturing globally - adopting more protectionist policies such as import tariffs, to protect domestic production (can make home industries uncompetitive globally so counterproductive)

Answer 13

Rise in political reaction, populist and nationalist movements in HIC's attributed to decline of living standards in areas suffering from deindustrialisation - Key driver of 2016 Brexit vote in UK and Donald Trumps election win

Answer 14

Populism is a range of political stances that emphasise the idea of the common people and often position this group in opposition to a perceived elite group.

Answer 15

Product consumption still lies predominantly in the richer countries of the developed world with products manufactured in NEEs largely exported to Europe, North America and Japan. This is beginning to change however, with more NEEs gaining affluent populations they are demanding similar consumer products to those in HICs - Dyson in UK moved manufacture of products to Malaysia iin 2002 and itss HQ too Singapore in 2019. 75% of its significant growth came from Asia in 2017

Answer 16

communication technologies financial systems transport systems security systems management and information systems trade agreements

Answer 17

The digital age has made very few barriers to prevent the sharing of information and the flow of data globally, links between nations have significantly grew by - development of computer technology - advent of the internet enabling speedy 24/7 global communication - the use of mobile phones (nearly 7 billion mobile phone subscribers worldwide) - computer control and robotics technologies intergrating manufacturing technology - computerised logistics systems evolving to support supply chain distributions

Answer 18

- the world became increasingly financially intergrated in the 80s and 90s due to financial deregulation, making it easier to move finance across borders to trade and invest in other countries - the Global Financial System GFS provides a framework to facilitate flows of capital for the purposes of financing investment and trade - intergration of developing countries into GFS helped reshape international trade - high speed electronic transmission systems and global exchange connectivity means that transactions of trade can be secure with fewer concern of rates (negative of deregulation and the free movement of capital is that it leaves the system exposed to volatile capital flows, which triggered the global bnaking crisis in 2008-2009

Answer 19

Products and commodities being shipped more quickly in larger quantities to ease international trade - increased aircraft size and air traffic network - growth of low cost airlines - use of standardised containers by sea, rail, road and air - handling and distribution efficiencies - high speed rail networks

Answer 20

Globalisation has caused several security issues, easier travel means more fluid flows of products and people but also a number of threats - terrorism - food imports - biosecurity - cybercrimes - supply chains Initiative have been put in place to mitigate these threats, Interpol enables police all around the world to fight international crime and The World Security Customs Organisation has introduced 'Authorised Economic Operaters' to tackle issues relating to trade security

Answer 21

- higher order business activities (research and development, marketing and advertising) based at corporation headquarters and strategic hubs around world - lower order activities (production and assembly) located at low production cost locations or near large markets - global corporations focusing on key strategic activities increasingly outsourcing non strategic activities - rapid growth of the logistics and distribution 'solutions' industry

Answer 22

Global value chains have been enabled by information systems giving businesses - virtually free telecommunications and video conferencing - intergrated ICT management supplied by third party service providers (Infor Nexus) to facilitate greater supply chain organisation

Answer 23

Large companies operating to produce and distribute goods and deliever services worldwide, in manufacturing to benefit from this these companies invest in - large production and assembly plants capable of exploiting the most advanced technology - global marketing and distribution networks to ensure sales keep pace with increased production

Answer 24

The full range of activities that economic actors engage in to bring a product to market. The global value chain does not only involve production processes, but preproduction (such as design) and postproduction processes (such as marketing and distribution).

Answer 25

A formal agreement between two or more countries that removes trade barriers between them There are a number of regional trade blocs formed around the world however they are not all such as OPEC Global advantages - improving global peace and security, reducing conflict - increasing global trade and economic co operation - encouraging social and economic development in LICs and NEEs

Answer 26

Organisation Of Petroleum Exporting Countries Focuses on the trading of oil globally, the single most important traded commodity - Made from mainly Middle East but also South America and Africa (not regionally based)

Answer 27

EU- monetary union USMCA- US, Mexico, Canada CARICOM- 20 countries of Caribbean

Answer 28

Trade creation Economies of scale Investment International status Employment Exchange rates Support for regions and ssectors Social, political Regional co operation

Answer 29

Trade diversion Loss of sovereignty Legislation Employment Finance/currency Dependance Over exploitation of resources

Answer 30

Signed by countries involved in 1994, its main aims were to remove all trade barriers, increase investment and improve economic co operation. (in 2017 the members generated $22 trillion in GDP)

Answer 31

Each country depends on each other, anything that happens in one country with nevertheless have impacts on other countries having social, economic and political impacts (COVID-19 of 2020-21 spreading from Wuhan, China) - environment interdependence - social interdependence - political interdependence - economic interdependence

Answer 32

Trade- In trading relationships, countries rely on others to supply their needs and to buy exported products. Also can have consequences for others (Russia's gas supply) Technology advances- Competing with foreign businesses may bring new innovations and approaches improving quality of products and services Employment- Countries relocating to other countries creating jobs (Dyson) Economic migration- in 2019, international migrants accounted for 20% of total population in 48 countries. Provides jobs and sends remittance back to home country (UAE and The Philippines) TNCs and investment- outsource services and operations to foreign businesses. May also form joint ventures with local companies bringing technology, employment and infrastructure development Supply chains- products produced at different locations and brought together for assembly before distributing products globally Industrialisation- globalisation has helped countries like Brazil and India to industrialise, also led to deindustrialisation and unemployment in Europe and North Ameirca

Answer 33

Intergovernmental organisations- established to provide stability, dialogue and consensus between nations ( IMF, WTO, UN) Security and stability- nations co operate more with each other making it easier for governments to work together on common goals World peace- wars less likely to happen and their economies and cultures are more interlinked

Answer 34

Health- WTO Culture- social ties strengthened through migration (India diaspora in UK) Education- More student foreign exchange programmes (Erasmus in EU) benefitting students and institutions involved

Answer 35

Global commons Global climate change- more international summits and establishment of international agencies (UNFCC + UNEP) encouraging nations and citizens to work towards shared goals of mitigating climate change protecting biodiversity Unsustainable practices- challenge environmental interdependency by unsustainable nature and impacts affecting more than one country such as the deforestation of the Amazon or south east Asia

Answer 36

- Unequal flows of people - Unequal flows of money - Unequal flows of ideas - Unequal flows of technology - Unequal power relations

Answer 37

- Reduced unemployment in places where there is a lack of work because of opportunities to work elsewhere - Addresses important skill and labour shortages in places - Reduces some inequality as foreign workers earn higher wages in HICs - Remittances sent back to developing countries provide stability and opportunity for growth - Migrant workers increase workforce, pay taxes and spend money, which promotes growth and reduces dependency in HICs with ageing populations - Some workers return to their country of origin equipped with new skills and ideas - Reduces population pressure on resources, such as food and water, and services, such as healthcare, in developing countries

Answer 38

- Developing countries lose younger, more talented workers attracted by higher wages, this ‘brain drain’ reinforces inequality and dependency - Loss of skilled workers adversely impacts on productivity, growth and development - Developing countries become over-dependent on remittances - Migrant workers and families may put pressure on health and education services in HICs; they may be treated differently in these systems - If only workers are allowed to settle, families may be separated, which is unjust - Migrants may be segregated formally or informally into certain areas. - Resentment towards migrants may lead to ethnic and cultural conflict - Greater movement of labour may contribute to the risk of disease pandemics

Answer 39

Remittances – money sent home by migrants working overseas is an important source of income for developing economies Loans – developing countries borrow from the World Bank to fund projects, such as improving transport connectivity or for health and education programmes that increase standards, access and inclusion which needs to be paid back Inflows of foreign direct investment (FDI) – investment from TNCs or governments in Europe, Japan and the US to developing countries has raised average incomes and reduced poverty (over one billion people have escaped poverty in Asia in the last 30 years.) Difficult to achieve without inflows of FDI for investment in key projects, but it can create dependency. Workers dependent on higher wages may be subject to poorer working conditions. Growth of TNCs – capital investment and taxes paid by successful global businesses to their host governments have stimulated economic growth. However, TNCs may pressure host governments to alleviate taxes or relax social and environmental laws. Loss of profits (‘leakages’) – the repatriation of profits by TNCs to their home country undermines the benefits gained from investment in developing countries. There may be limited ‘trickle-down’ from the FDI into the developing economy and this may exacerbate global inequalities in wealth. Foreign aid – aid will help low income countries in times of need, but it can reduce incentives for governments to help their own countries

Answer 40

Privatisation- dismantling state ownership of corporations can benefit consumers in LICs by lowering prices however Profits are retained (rather than re-invested as is the case for nationalised industries), causing greater inequality and potentially inhibiting economic growth Deregulation- reducing government regulation and intervention can encourage enterprise yet can lead to more relaxed social and environmental laws in LICs, causing social injustices and environmental degradation Free trade- allows global markets to develop and thrive and may help some LICs to attract investment however it may not always be beneficial to some LICs; they may be disadvantaged as infant domestic industries may be outcompeted by free trade so some protection needed Multi-culturalism- enables developing countries to integrate into the global economy and to access markets but citizens may see it as a dilution of their culture and even a threat to their national sovereignty and identity

Answer 41

Information and data flows – access to mobile and internet services is transforming people’s lives in less developed economies. (e.g the ‘Village Phone’ microfinance model pioneered in Bangladesh now being used in Uganda) It enables access to the internet even in remote rural areas, improving people’s quality of life. Technology manufacture – access to technology, such as computers and smartphones, in less developed countries is limited as technology is unaffordable to many, this is unjust as the assembly of consumer technology products is often based in developing countries and employees receive relatively low wages compared with the selling price of the goods.

Answer 42

Indicators suggest that globalisation is reducing global inequality through the transfer of capital and income from richer to poorer economies. However it may increase inequality within countries as richer members of societies cope better with the changes in jobs and technology.

Answer 43

The statistical measure that is usually used to indicate levels of inequality of income distribution within a country, it aggregates the inequalities in people’s incomes into a single measure, giving a coefficient score of between zero and one. The higher the score within this range means greater income inequality.

Answer 44

In general, wealthier developed countries wield more power, which enables them to steer global systems to their own advantage. There are a number of factors that reinforce this imbalance of power: - more wealth, advanced technology and more military power to use on a global scale. They provide aid, investment and transfers of technology and medical knowledge to assist developing countries relying on geopolitical support in return. - Wealthier countries have close relations with each other in groups such as the G7, G20 and the OECD. By cooperating in these intergovernmental economic groups, they can synergise their efforts to be more influential in driving global economic and political systems. - Developed countries have more influence in global governance through intergovernmental organisations such as UN, IMF, the World Bank and WTO improving stability and development led by the more powerful nations whose vested interests cause them to influence change to their own advantage. - Developing countries have less influence and limited power to intervene so they have to depend on decisions made by wealthier countries

Answer 45

The ‘Group of Seven’ is an intergovernmental organisation made up of the world’s seven largest advanced IMF economies: Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the UK and the US.

Answer 46

The G20 group is an international forum for the governments of 20 major economies. It includes the G7 countries and the EU as a single member. It was established in 1999 to give a voice to the major developing economies. This group includes China.

Answer 47

The Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development is a group of 34 of the richest and most influential countries globally.

Answer 48

Geopolitical issues are typically political or economic conflicts between two countries or two groups of countries based on resource shortages or on strategic territorial claims, exploration rights or supporting political allies and minority groups within countries (e.g the US permanent position on the UN Security Council may have shielded Israel from wider UN criticism for policies disadvantaging Palestinians)

Answer 49

A theory suggesting that countries should specialise in providing goods and services that they excel at producing. They trade these for the things they are not so good at producing making trading exchanges easier if there are fewer barriers. This means that theoretically production should increase in each country, and globally, because each country is concentrating on what it does best

Answer 50

Import licence- a document issued by a national government authorising the importation of certain goods from a specific source. Import quotas- quotas set a physical limit restricting the quantity of a particular commodity that can be imported into the country within a specific period of time. Subsidies- these are grants or allowances usually awarded to domestic producers to reduce their costs and make them more competitive against imported goods. Sanctions- restrictions on exports implemented for political reasons by countries and international organisations to maintain international peace and security. Embargoes- the partial or complete prohibition of commerce and trade with a particular country usually for political rather than commercial reasons. Regulatory or technical restrictions- These are restrictions placed on imports based on obstacles such as the quality standards of goods or how they are produced (e.g the EU puts restrictions on the import of goods produced using child labour)

Answer 51

Trade barriers between the member countries are eliminated but each member country maintains its own tariffs against nonmember countries - ASEAN

Answer 52

The same as an FTA but with the addition that member countries impose a common external tariff against non-member countries outside the bloc - CARICOM

Answer 53

The same as a customs union but with the additional agreement to allow the free flow of goods, services, capital and eventually labour (the ‘four freedoms’) between the countries without any restrictions - EU

Answer 54

Economic union can take different forms, but members will operate as a common market with the additional integration of a common tax system or currency - EU Eurozone

Answer 55

The growth of international trade has stalled in recent years. In 2018, the value of world trade in goods was US $19.48 trillion, only US $0.50 trillion more than its value in 2013. The total value of services traded globally in 2018 reached US $5.8 trillion, a slightly larger increase from five years earlier.

Answer 56

Comparative advantage – countries specialise in producing and exporting goods that they can produce more efficiently at a lower cost Proximity – countries are more likely to trade with their neighbours, for little transport costs but also for cultural, historic or linguistic reasons. This is why trade is often organised on a regional basis Agglomeration – some industries tend to cluster in geographical areas as sharing of regional skills and specialist information saves costs Market size and strength – exporters are drawn to larger, more affluent and growing markets where there is potential to increase volume and value of sales Geopolitical relationships – political alliances are important in determining which countries co-operate and trade with each other; conversely, conflict may lead to sanctions or embargoes

Answer 57

- Developing countries receive almost twice as much FDI as they initiate. - FDI from North America has slumped. - The Asia-Pacific region accounts for 40 per cent of FDI inflows. - Eight of the top 20 recipients of FDI were developing economies. - The largest FDI investors were Japan, China and France.

Answer 58

Manufacturing industries – (foreign motor companies investing in the USA and UK or offshoring and outsourcing investment in China and India) Natural resource development – investment from mining corporations, like in Brazil, Congo, Guyana and Mongolia Financial business services – attract investment in Singapore and Hong Kong Large and accessible consumer markets – attract both manufacturers and service providers ( the EU is a single market of 500 million people) Lower business taxes – attract investment to Ireland and Cyprus, which have relatively low taxes and are also part of the large EU market Also demonstrates that in some cases it is a combination of factors that attracts foreign investment.

Answer 59

A social movement whose goal is to help producers in LICs achieve better trading conditions. The movement focuses mainly on agricultural-based products including coffee, tea, cocoa, sugar, bananas, cotton and chocolate

Answer 60

They argue that those producing the commodities do not get an equitable deal from the organisations they supply their produce to. Buyers such as TNCs, food processing companies or supermarket chains from developed countries are able to force down the prices because the individual suppliers: ● have little market influence ● are extremely reliant on the income from their goods.

Answer 61

The fair trade movement advocates the payment of higher prices to producers, as well as helping them to achieve improved social and environmental standards. They assist producers to form into co-operatives giving them more influence in governing market conditions and the power to negotiate better deals with buyers or to supply direct. The goods are labelled as ‘fair trade’ with the International Fairtrade Certification mark, so that ‘ethical consumers’ can recognise that they are buying goods for which the producer received a fair price.

Answer 62

Each country’s access to markets is determined by its ability to trade with other countries. Access to international markets is limited by any barriers that might be in place, such as tariffs, quotas or trade regulations, and this will depend on the degree of protectionism used by other countries or trading blocs

Answer 63

- They can afford to pay higher tariffs on exported goods - they can increase access by investing into foreign markets (TNCs can relocate their production inside foreign markets to avoid tariffs) - HICs often group together to form trading blocs and customs unions, such as the EU, to allow free trade with each other but impose barriers on countries outside the union.

Answer 64

- LICs struggle to pay high tariffs or invest in foreign markets and have difficulties entering into trading agreements with richer countries. - They often focus on exporting primary products that are traditionally subject to price volatility.

Answer 65

- Gives more leverage when trying to gain access to other markets - Agreements between two or more trading groups can open up wider markets, especially for LICs - Non-inclusion reinforces a position of isolation and having to overcome trade barriers to gain access.

Answer 66

They may also remove the protection given to growing domestic industries before they are strong enough to compete

Answer 67

Used by nations as a political and economic ‘weapon’ against individual countries with whom there is a dispute. - In 2006, the UN Security Council imposed sanctions against Iran because of its refusal to suspend its nuclear programme. This severely harmed Iran’s economy until a deal was made to lift sanctions in 2016

Answer 68

- Limited revenue from exports and business taxes means lack of money for investment or development. - Poor access to markets deters foreign investment. - Balance of payment problems will increase debt and restrict economic growth. - Limited investment, growth and development will cause unemployment and poverty. - There is a limited range and a lack of affordability of imported goods for consumers. - In the worst situations, a lack of ability to trade can even threaten food or energy security.

Answer 69

- Special and differential treatment agreements (SDTs) - Trade

Answer 70

Agreements of the WTO’s multilateral trading system for the past sixty years to provide developing countries with support measures to overcome their trading disadvantages. It have LICs preferential access to developed markets in trade agreements. - enjoy privileged access to the markets of their trading partners, particularly developed countries - have the right to restrict imports to a greater degree than developed countries - be allowed additional freedom to subsidise exports

Answer 71

- The WTO Doha Development round of trade talks made little progress in making SDT measures more effective for developing countries - Richer nations are concerned that non-reciprocal preferential trading agreements cause unfair trade as many emerging economies (China) still have ‘developing country’ status yet refuses to give up their SDT rights and is still able to subsidise exports fearing that this will result in cheap imports, flooding markets and undermining their own industrial base. -The agreements are difficult to apply in a fair or standardised manner and the lack of reciprocity in the agreements has deterred some developed countries from participation.

Answer 72

Replaced by bilateral trade agreements between poorer countries and richer trading partners. (Mexico was previously a beneficiary of preferential access to Canadian and US markets but has arguably benefited more as a member of USMCA).

Answer 73

Companies that operate in at least two countries, with a headquarters based in one country but with business operations usually in a number of others - take many different forms and are based in different economic sectors - can develop in both HICs and NEEs - have considerable political influence

Answer 74

To escape trade tariffs (Nissan’s decision to produce cars in Sunderland to gain barrier-free access to the EU market) To find the lowest cost location for their production (Hewlett-Packard in Malaysia) To take advantage of foreign exchange rates that make exports cheaper (Dyson in Malaysia) To reach foreign markets more effectively (McDonald’s) To exploit mineral or other resources available in foreign countries (BP in Azerbaijan)

Answer 75

- maximising global economies of scale by organising production to reduce costs - sourcing raw materials or components at the lowest cost - controlling key supply chains - control of processing at each stage of production - branding of products/services so they are easily recognisable

Answer 76

Involves relocating a part of the organisation, such as manufacturing operations, to an overseas location to take advantage of lower costs or alternatively to access foreign markets. This includes TNCs locating factories in higher wage economies, such as Toyota in the UK and US to access these wealthier markets.

Answer 77

A strategy that involves subcontracting part of the business operation to another company, usually in another country where costs are lower.

Answer 78

When companies in similar industries locate near to each other because of the benefits gained by sharing ideas and resources – called ‘agglomeration economies’.

Answer 79

Based wherever there are unexploited resources (developing economies as reserves in more developed countries have largely been depleted)

Answer 80

largely been located in the manufacturing regions of developing countries (especially in South East Asia) - labour costs are lower - investment in education, which makes it easier to train workers - work ethic means workers are willing to work long hours, with relatively few holidays, in a non unionised labour environment - there may be government incentives such as taxfree breaks, special economic zones (SEZs) with low business rates or less restrictive environmental regulations

Answer 81

Service-based are more footloose and will locate operations either where there are relatively low labour costs balanced with good education or in proximity to their markets. Language is another important consideration here: lower level services, such as call centres, are outsourced to India because of the high proportion of well educated English-speaking workers, who offer a lower cost alternative.

Answer 82

Links with other countries can be made by investing in them and by establishing joint ventures with national or state controlled companies.

Answer 83

Vertical intergration Horizontal intergration

Answer 84

An arrangement in which the supply chain of a company is owned entirely by that company, from raw material through to the finished product. This gives the TNC control over its supplies and stocks and reduces costs because of economies of scale. (BP negotiated exploration and production rights in over 50 oil and gas fields worldwide, which it calls its upstream activities. It owns or jointly owns with other energy companies 11 oil pipelines and has its own shipping fleet. The company owns refineries, usually based in the countries where end products are sold, and globally has nearly 19,000 retail service stations. These are BP’s ‘downstream’ activities. )

Answer 85

A strategy where a company diversifies its operations by expansion, merger or takeover to give a broader capability at the same stage of production. Either complementary or competitive to its existing business. (Kraft Foods’ takeover of Cadbury in 2010 gave them a more diverse base in the grocery and confectionery market.)

Answer 86

For the host country - generates jobs and income - brings new technology - gives workers new skills - has a multiplier effect - improved energy and transport infrastructure For the TNC - lower costs because of cheaper land and lower wages - greater access to new resources and markets - fewer controls such as environmental legislation For country of origin (TNC base) - cheaper goods - specialise in management, financial services, R&D and other higher skill occupations

Answer 87

For the host country - poor working conditions - exploitation of resources - negative impacts on environment and local culture - economic leakages/repatriation of profits For the TNC - ethical issues such as the image of environmental damage or ‘sweatshops’ can be detrimental to their reputation - social and environmental conscience For the country of origin (TNC base) - loss of manufacturing jobs - deindustrialisation - structural unemployment - demultiplier effect leads to spiral of decline in former manufacturing areas - can mean derelict factories, areas of deprivation and poverty

Answer 88

Regional trading blocs International organisations Transnational corporations Emerging economies

Answer 89

A term used to describe products or services that are distributed globally but which are fashioned to appeal to the consumers in a local market. - Mcdonalds Mac Burrito in Mexico City

Answer 90

The way in which global affairs that affect the whole world are managed. It regulates interconnected global economic, social, political and environmental systems to keep them stable and in balance.

Answer 91

Resource domains or areas that lie outside the political reach of any one nation state.

Answer 92

- the establishment of international legal agreements - governance undertaken by intergovernmental institutions and agencies - the extension and reinforcement of social norms on a global scale.

Answer 93

The UN is an international organisation founded in 1945, made up of 193 member states whose aim is to promote international peace, security and cooperation. Due to its unique international status and the powers vested in its founding charter, the UN is the intergovernmental institution with the greatest political authority at a global level.

Answer 94

Following the largely successful achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDG), UN members met at the Sustainable Development Summit in September 2015 and agreed a new Agenda 2030 for global sustainable development, which defined a set of 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) from 2015 to 2030

Answer 95

- action on issues that face humanity in the twenty-first century, such as peace and security, climate change, sustainable development, human rights, poverty and many more - fostering co-operation by facilitating dialogue and negotiations between nations; the UN is a mechanism for solving problems and finding areas of agreement.

Answer 96

UN security council UN general assembly UN Development Programme (UNDP) World Health Organisation

Answer 97

Development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Answer 98

- a lack of agreement and subsequent inaction on many security issues - limited power to enforce compliance to regulations by national governments - its organisation and funding –in a way that supports the status quo, with more powerful nations setting the agenda for their own self-interest.

Answer 99

Established in 1945 at the end of the WWII to stabilise the global economy and to provide financial stability. Their functions are pivotal in regulating and acting as intermediaries in the flow of international capital - IMF funding is paid by members and influence is determined by their wealth. Developing countries criticise this as the larger contributions give wealthier nations a more powerful vote on decisions. - As part of their conditions for loans, the IMF has been known to impose severe cuts on spending by governments in developing countries, adversely affecting education and welfare. - Rescue loans are provided by the IMF only to stabilise international trade; eventually the borrowing country has to pay the loan back at high interest rates.

Answer 100

Established in 1945 at the end of the WWII to stabilise the global economy and to provide financial stability. Their functions are pivotal in regulating and acting as intermediaries in the flow of international capital - Conditions attached to World Bank loans often insist on the reproduction of capitalist and free trade market models in the loanee’s economy, which do not always have the effect of reducing poverty - The World Bank has also been criticised for funding major ‘top down’ projects, such as large multipurpose dams to provide hydro-electric power, which have not helped to reduce poverty. The Bank now claims to support more sustainable ‘bottom-up’ development projects.

Answer 101

When local people are consulted and supported in making decisions to undertake projects or developments that meet one or more of their specific needs.

Answer 102

When the decision to undertake projects or developments is made by a central authority such as government with little or no consultation with the local people whom it will affect

Answer 103

The WTO came into existence in 1995 as the successor to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which was established in the wake of WWII. It currently has 164 members and covers 98% of world trade It provides stability by: - undertaking the liberalisation of trade by encouraging the removal of barriers and protectionist policies adopted by some governments and trading blocs - resolving trade disputes between member governments - providing a forum for trade negotiation - administering trade agreements that become the ground rules for international commerce

Answer 104

Started in 2001 in Qatar and effectively ended in Nairobi in 2015 - focused on reforming trade in agricultural produce, especially between advanced and developing economies, with the aim of helping less developed nations out of poverty

Answer 105

Any non-profit, non-commercial organisation with a common interest working independently of government influence. NGOs can be organised on a local, national or international scale.

Answer 106

- the high seas - the atmosphere - Antarctica - outer space.

Answer 107

International law relating to the global commons is guided by the common heritage of mankind principle. This principle affirms that the natural resources in defined territories or spaces are held in common by all nations given equally to each. Advances in science and technology have given easier access to a range of resources however greater scarcity of resources, especially minerals, fuels and food has put increasing pressure on the global commons to provide resources for a needy and developing world. These changes mean that the concept of common heritage is being put under increasing pressure.

Answer 108

Each of the global commons is covered by a number of international laws or treaties of one kind or another: - the high seas by the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) - the atmosphere by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), plus other international environmental agreements, including the Paris Climate Accord - Antarctica by the Antarctic Treaty Systems (ATS) - outer space by the Outer Space Treaty (1967)

Answer 109

More than 5.1 million labour migrants entered OECD countries in 2018 (Organisation for economoc cooperation and development)