Good moral conduct and key moral principles

Question 1

why is good moral conduct important for christians

Answer 1

• it brings the reward of earning a place in heaven/avoids them being sent to Hell
• Christians try to follow Jesus’s example in what he taught and the way he behaved - eg n Paul’s letter to the Ephesians, Paul urges them to avoid bad conduct and put on a moral nature that befits what they learned in christ eg abandoning deceitful lust and speaking the truth
• Jesus’s sermon on the mount shows that good conduct glorifies god
• Good conduct is based on loving God and other people

Question 2

describe different views on good conduct

Answer 2

• Protestands who follow divine command theory believe an action is morally good only if commanded by God
• those who follow Catholic Natural Moral law follow teachings of Awuinas - moral values can be understood from human nature simply by applying human reason
• Those who follow Situation Ethics focus on the law of agape and apply this situationally
• Some deistic christians (reject revelation. as a source of religious knowledge and assert reason and observation of the natural world as sufficient evidence of a creator) belief god has left the governance of the world to humans so we have complete freedom to interpret the bible as they wish - eg process theologians
• Some moral commands in the Bible are now seen as immoral - eg Paul’s letter to Titus which can eb sen to condone slavery
• Those who see Jesus’s authority as merely human are perhaps likely to question his command to ‘turn the other cheek’ - many take it as commanding pacifism whereas others might find pacifism impractical and immoral for not defending innocent people and allowing evil to have its way
• Jesus rules that whoever divorces his wife for any reason other than unchastity and marries another commits adultery - christian churches differ in their interpretation of this
• Some insist that good conduct isn’t a matter of following rules for the sake of reward to avoid punishment, but is rather a matter od doing right for right’s sake - eg UNITARIANISM - people have free will to make moral choicest religious doctrines are an aid to choosing but free reason makes the choice
• some liberal christians see heaven and hell as psychological realities, and those who practice good morals conduct create god’s kingdom here on earth rather than after death
• Many for whom the kingdom of god is a future reality place particular importance on the New Testament doctrine of Atonement: suffering/death of Jesus atoned for original sin of humanity where death was a consequence of original sin - Jesus’s death restores the relationship between god and humanity, so those the accept Jesus/God’s holy spirit can have the gift of eternal life in the kingdom of god
• most chritisans accept he doctrine of atonement but disagree about how precisely it is that Christians must do to accept this gift an HOW they can access the kingdom of god

Question 3

what is justification by faith

Answer 3

• christians are counted as righteous before god on the basis of faith alone

Question 4

Describe Calvin’s argument about justification by faith

Answer 4

• A person can be considered righteous in the eyes of god not by ‘the righteousness of works’ but by faith alone
• when someone believes in and trusts Jesus they are essentially ‘laying hold of the righteousness of Christs’ accepting the goodness of Jesus and perfection as their own
• Sin is so evil that the only omnipotent gracious god can remove it because it has corrupted humanity so even living a good life wouldn’t be enough to save you from is. - only the grace of god can save you - the action f god working in our lives
• instead of trying to be good enough on their own, a person is considered righteous by god because they have a faith in Jesus and His goodness - Calvin imagines this like putting on a coat, when you have faith in god you ‘clothe’ yourself in his righteousness, so when god looks at you he sees you as righteous
• The righteousness that god grants isn’t earned through obedience to the Law, but rather because God is the creator of humanity because he is ineffable and infallible

Question 5

St Paul and justification by faith

Answer 5

• Developed by St Paul, appearing principally in his letter to the romans
• simply obeying the law can’t justify humanity, only God can - for humans to to be counted as righteous doesn’t mean that they earn righteousness - it can’t be earned by following the Law because all humans have sinned - to be judged righteous by God can only be a free gift by God’s grace - this free gift of grace is to redeem humanity through the sacrifice of Jesus whose death on the cross atones for human sin
• People are justified by faith ‘apart’ from the law - justification is by faith rather than works
• Abraham lived before Jesus’s atonement but could still be justified by god because of his faith - god taste Abraham’s faith by commanding him to kill his only son - god stops him doing this because of Abraham’s obedience to faith in god - ‘his faith is reckoned as righteousness’

Question 6

Luther and justification by faith

Answer 6

• salvation is a gift of god’s grac e received through faith and not something that could be earned through human effort
• Jesus’s death paid the ‘debt’ of humanity, only Jesus could have done this because he is god incarnate - thus, Jesus is the only one to save you and it is faith alone, not good works

Question 7

Justification by faith and sola fide

Answer 7

• ‘faith alone’, associated with protestant reformation and Luther
• emphasises the belief that faith in Jesus Christ is the means by which a person is justified or made righteous before god - according to this theological perspective, salvation. isn’t achieved through good works or adherence to religious rituals but is solely based on faith in Jesus Christ

Question 8

Justification by faith and imputation of righteousness

Answer 8

• a crucial aspect of justification by faith is the imputation of christ’s righteousness to believers that means that through faith believers are considered righteous in god’s eyes because of christ’s atoning work on the cross

Question 9

Justification by faith and relationship with grace

Answer 9

• The concept of justification by faith is closely tied to the idea of grace - protestants assert that salvation is a result of god’s unmerited favour and faith is the means by which individuals appropriate this grace - it isn’t about earning salvation through good deeds but rather receiving it as a gift

Question 10

Repsonse to legalism

Answer 10

• the emphasis on justification by faith can be seen as a response to what reformers perceived as an emphasis on legalism within the catholic chiurch during the medieval period
• legalism in this context therefore refers to a reliance on human effort and adherence to religious laws for salvation, which justification yb faith rejects

Question 11

Contrast between justification by faith and catholic doctrine

Answer 11

• protestand understanding of justification by faith stands in contrast to certain aspects of traditional catholic doctrine which historically emphasises the importance of cooperation of faith and good works for justification

Question 12

Predestination and justification by faith in christianity

Answer 12

• predestination: god, in his sovereignty, has chosen specific individuals for salvation from the beginning of time,. a choice based solely on god’ grace not on an individuals quality
  both justification by faith and predestination underscore that god is in complete control of the salvation process - whilst god initiates salvation, human response through faith is crucial

Question 13

Describe justification by works

Answer 13

• Argues that faith without works is dead - eg saying you love a poor person without helping them
• Faith on its own is useless because even demons believe in god - belief in this case doesn’t equate to justification
• Rather, faith can be shown by works - eg Abraham had faith but showed it with works (going to sacrifice Isaac) so man is justified by works not faith alone
• Just as a body without spirit is dead, faith without works is dead

Question 14

James, parable of sheep and goats, justification by works

Answer 14

• Some accept James’ letter as clear in saying ‘faith apart from works is dead’
• as James pointed out, even demands have faith in god yet their works are demonic so works are what they are judged on most
• many christians accept the need for works as based on the parable of the sheep and goats
• in the parable god makes n mention of whether those who are goat/sheep-like have or lack faith - the sheep go to eternal life in god’s kingdom because they have done good works eg giving drink to the thirst
• many christians feel that to follow Jesus we should follow his commands and teach them - so Jesus emphasises the importance of good works
• the parable of the sheep and goats identifies good moral principles to live by but doesn’t mention who has faith
• whilst the faith of the sinner is passive rather than active in justification by faith, works demands activity - salvation is not through christ alone but through our work

Question 15

Describe the catholic church’s view of both faith and works

Answer 15

• the Catholic Church took the view that some effort had to be involved in the process of justification

Question 16

Describe predestination

Answer 16

• the doctrine that god has ordained all that will happen, especially with regard to the salvation of some and not others, associated with Augustine and Calvin
• the fate of each individual regarding their place in the KoH has been willed by God - if this is the case, it seems to imply that their conduct is morally good because god has willed that - it would also imply that good moral conduct in humans beings is less important than god’s will

Question 17

where does predestination come from

Answer 17

• the view that God is omnipotent and omniscient - biblical authors believed that all power and knowledge were in god’s hands as the creator as god controls all, he must also control all of history - including the lives of every being created

Question 18

What does Paul suggest about predestination

Answer 18

• he seems to suggest that God predestined some people to be conformed to the image of his Son to lead christ-like lives, and that those who were called were thereby justified - if that is the correct understanding of Paul then this implies that God predestines some people to good moral conduct, they lead christ-like lives not through their own choice but through God’s

Question 19

Problems of predestination

Answer 19

• The clash between predestination and human free will : From Genesis, christians derive the belief that humans are created in god;s image and for most christians this includes the ability to be moral beings and the ability to reject god’s commandments - we can only be morally good by ;choosing’ the good because if people odd god works for fear of punishment then they are not really making a free choice
• If god ‘predestines’ humans to heaven or hell then serious questions can be asked about the goodness of god. why should christians have good moral conduct when god has already decided that they will go to heaven or hell

Question 20

Pelagius’ critique of predestination

Answer 20

• Everything god created was good, so god coupon have possibly created humanity in a state of original sin/
• Grace is just god’s gift of free will to humans
• predestination is moral nonsense
• the human will therefore needs no help from god to choose between good and evil
• strength: what would be the point of god creating humans with such a weak degree of free will that they were unable to make free good choices, and what sense is there in inherited original sin

Question 21

Describe Augustine’s argument about predestination

Answer 21

• In opposition to Pelagius he argued that it is not by human merit that the elect are predestined to god’s kingdom but rather it is his god
• because god is all-knowing, his foreknowledge means that he infallibly knows who will be saved
• he worked his way to a doctrine of double predestination, meaning that god predestines some to god’s kingdom through his grace but also leaves others immersed in their sin to be condemned to hell through both their choice and their works

Question 22

different christian views of predestination

Answer 22

• calvisnist traditions such as reformed and presbyterian chrurches adhere to the concept of double predestination, catholicism generally emphasises the compatibility of divine sovereignty and human free will. Many protestant denominations fall in between

Question 23

give the philosophical problems with the idea of predestination

Answer 23

• Prolem with god’s omniscience: if god is omniscient, then he must have known in advance of creating the universe who will be worthy of heaven and who will be worthy of hell - why then would god bother to create beings who would inevitably go to hell
• condemning people to eternal love doesn’t fit with the idea of ‘god is love’ defining the nature of the relationship between the three persons of the trinity - arguably infinite love cannot be reconciled with the idea of infinite punishment

Question 24

Hick, predestination to universal salvation,, critique

Answer 24

• Hick argued instead with the idea of soul-making that eternal damnation to hell cannot exist we will all eventually come too freely acknowledge god since his loving persuasion is that god is a god of love, then eternal damnation to hell cannot exist - instead, after an indeterminate number of lifetimes Hick suggests that every human will freely come to acknowledge god since god’s loving persuasion has infinite patience and the certainty of eventual success - this may seem as if hick is teaching a doctrine of predestination to universal salvation but if he is sure of success there can be no real freedom to reject god, and if universal predestination to heaven is true, the atonement seems to have no value

Question 25

CRITICISM of the predestination belief that, similar to Paul, that god knows through foreknowledge who will freely reject him so they are predestined to savlation whilst those who reject him will simply cease to exist

Answer 25

- if god knows that you will make a choice at a given time then it would seem that you cannot avoid choosing it then - thus god causes all of your choices and there is no free will, essentially mocking any doctrine that god knows who will freely accept him

Question 26

Response to the criticism that god's knowledge of who will freely accept him (predestined to salvation)

Answer 26

- god exists tirelessly, existing beyond space-time seeing the whole history of the universe simultaneously - he timelessly sees the results of our free choices but wouldn't cause these choices

Question 27

Bonhoeffer's critique of faith alone

Answer 27

- he criticised the misuse of the doctrine of justification by faith alone, saying that it leads to cheap grace - grace received without commitment action or moral responsibility - Bonhoeffer argues that some Christina use justification by faith alone as an excuse to live in a. way that contradicts Christ's teachings, allowing people to claim salvation without the necessity of discipleship or a change in behaviour - as a result grace becomes something passive and uncostly - simply an intellectual belief that requires nothing from the believer. - salvation is free but not cheap in the sense that it should have no impact on one's life - Bonhoeffer aligns more closely with James 2.26 and the view that faith and works are inseparable - true faith is not just a mental assent but a call to discipleship action and sacrifice - costly grace is the opposite, it means that face leads to moral action, often requiring sacrifice and sometimes suffering - justification n by faith is not about passive acceptance of salvation but about an active commitment to christ's teachings which involves following him in thought and deed

Question 28

Describe the sanctity of life

Answer 28

a principle of implied protection regarding aspects of sentient life which are said to be sacred that they are not to be violated - for christians, all life belongs to god and is therefore regarded as valued and important

Question 29

Where does the sanctity of life derive from

Answer 29

- 'let us make humankind in our image, according to our likeness.... in the image of god he created them' - 'then the Lord God formed man of dust from the ground and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and man became a living being'

Question 30

Describe imago dei

Answer 30

a latin term translating as 'image of god' - a theological term applied uniquely to humans which denotes the symbolic relation between god and humanity

Question 31

give the three important aspects to the sanctity of life principle

Answer 31

1) Human life has intrinsic value 2) 'strong' and a 'weak' form of the principle 3) quality of life principle with sanctity of life principle

Question 32

Describe the idea that human life has intrinsic value

Answer 32

- intrinsic = had value for its own sake - it has value in itself because it is a gift from god, life should therefore be respected. 'the lord gave, and the lord has taken away'

Question 33

Describe the 'strong' and 'weak' principle of the sanctity of life

Answer 33

- the strong form is sometimes used to argue that all human life is sacred to god and it ts therefore morally impermissible to allow contraception, abortion or euthanasia (this is the catholic tradition) - the 'weak' form is that although human life is sacred to god and the sanctity of life principle must always be considered,so too must the situation/context.

Question 35

Describe the quality of life principle within the sanctity of life

Answer 35

- it is the same as the 'weak' form - someone who is on a life-support machine and has no hope of recovery, the principle of sanctity of life no longer applies due to quality of life - humans have a god-given right to self-determination which follows from imago dei, so they have the right to decide -

Question 36

christian personhood debate - strong sanctity of life principle approach

Answer 36

- at the point of conception new life is created biologically - christians debate over if and when this biological life form becomes a person with an inviolable right to life - the strong sanctity of life principle holds that personhood begins at conception since all genetic material that will form the person that is born is already present - catholic strong view supported by 'before I formed you in the womb I knew you, and before you were born I consecrated you' - UK law gives special statute to the human embryo after 14 days - this essentially denies the embryo the right to life that it possesses at the point of conception -experimentation on human embryos at any time breaks 'do not kill' - tantamount to murder, it is also seen as 'playing god' and manipulating life that is sacred to god - children are valued for what they are, sp genetic selection of embryos is wrong - PGD could b viewed as discriminatory and lead to designer babies

Question 37

Describe the weak sanctity of life principles approach to the personhood debate

Answer 37

- christians who accept tthis principle may accept the value of the embryo at all stages of development but may also take into account both actual and potential situations - the Church of England applies a quality off life principle to the life of the mother - the importance of the quality of her life in certain situations, such as rape can override the sanctity of the embryo - situation ethics approach would consider the most loving thing to do - come uses the same principle to allow genetic selection for serious disorders and embryonic experimentation under strict control - god-given knowledge should be used wherever possible to improve the human conditio - if the benefits of such research can help us to recognise the sanctity of the lives of those who suffer from incurable diseases then it should be encouraged

Question 38

Strengths of the sanctity of life principle

Answer 38

- protects life as sacred - promotes a positive approach to the value of all human life - its weaker form is in line with ejsus's teachings on agape and loving your neighbour m - weaker form is also in line with the realities of life

Question 39

Against the sanctity of life principle

Answer 39

- ignores scientific findings concerning evolution and natural selection - humans aren't a special life form, theya are no different from other Animals - anthropomorphism to say we are made in god's image - reinforces a patriarchal model of society

Question 40

describe just war theory

Answer 40

- a belief to ensure war is morally justifiable through a series of criteria which must be met for a war to be considered just - both Augustine and aquinas were influential

Question 41

Two main elements of just war theory

Answer 41

Jus ad bellum - the laws and conditions under which it is legitimate to go to war Jus in bello - latin for the rules under which a war must be fought once begun

Question 42

Describe Jus ad Bellum

Answer 42

1) there has to be a use cause 2) war can only be declared by a legitimate authority 3) the war must be fought with the right intention 4) there has to be a reasonable probability of success 5) war must be the last resort 6) there must be proportionality 'Just Leaders Really Prefer Limited Pain'

Question 43

Describe Jus in Bello

Answer 43

- there has to be a principle of discrimination: non-combatants must not be directly attakced - proportionality of the means to ends - the means used to fight the way must be proportionate to the ends required

Question 44

Criticism of the proportionality element of just war theory

Answer 44

- 2003 iraq war was justified as the evil of the war was considered to be proportionate to the potential harm that would be caused by the use of supposed arsenal of nuclear weapons in Iraq. however they failed to materialise and the effects of the war were arguably out of proprotipon to the achievements with a long term impact - thus, complying with a proportionality clause can amount to crystal-ball gazing - thus, the principle of proportionality is unworkable because it is impossible to know the outcome in advance

Question 45

Weapons of mass destruction and how they apply to just war theory

Answer 45

- they include nuclear weapons, chemical weapons, biological weapons - they seem to lie outside the boundaries drawn by just war theory 1) discrimination: most theologians argue that the use of weapons of mass destruction can never discriminate since they are equally likely to kill non-combatants as they are to destroy military targets - thus they breach the principle of discrimination from jus in bello 2) proportionality: most theologians argue that WMD meet neither of th proportionality clauses - principle 6 of jus ad bellum argues that the harm done can never be proportionate to the good, and principle 2 of ius in bello - using WMDs can never be proprtionate to the ends desired 3) Probability of success: fighting an unwindable war would be futile - a full-scale nuclear confrontation would result in massive casualties and environmental destruction for all sides of war thus going against principle 4 of ius ad vellum since such wars have no probability of success

Question 46

christian views of just war

Answer 46

Catholic and cfE: - in accordance with the Just War criteria there are strictly limited circumstances when war can be justified (jus ad vellum criteria) - war can be a necessary evil to resore peace and justice - it is a duty to stop greater evil occurring - Pope Benedict XVI: 'defending oneself and others is a duty' Other Christina denominations: - pacifism - eg Quakers - all violence Is wrong which affects all behaviours, they believe that their faith inspires them to 'utterly deny all outward wars', so they are 'conscientious objectors' to consciption. war can never be justified, because it always leads to loss of life - MLKJr argued we must use the weapon of love, violence can never be justified and everything can be resoled through nonviolent mean,s peace can only be achieved peacefully m - Jesu was the prince of peace who taught 'blessed are the peacemakers' - 'those who live by the sword die by the sword' and urged for peaceful resolutions

Question 47

Christian debate about WMDs

Answer 47

1) many christians argue that Just War theory cannot be applied to WMDs because the evil threatened or caused by them woudl be out of all godo proportion to any hope for good effects and could never be just - since 2013, pope Francis has urged the abolition of nuclear weapons and many protestant churches take a similar line 2) Some christens see the above arguments as unrealistic - WMDs cannot be uninvented and it would be naive to imagine that countries will voluntarily give up their nuclear weapons - thus by this logic, the threat and use of nuclear weapons could be justified by christians on the grounds that a) the threat of their use is the best deterrent to a potential attacker, b) the atrocities committed by invading armies are arguably as unspeakable as the use of nuclear weapons

Question 48

just war theory and the sanctity of life

Answer 48

1) preservation of life: the foundational principles of the sanctity of life's the imperative to preserve and protect human life - when applied conscientiously, aims to limit the destruction and loss of life during armed conflicts 2) Right intention: JWT emphasises the importance of the right intention, indicating that the primary goal of engaging in war should be to establish a just and lasting peace - this aligns with the christian understanding of the sanctity of life, as the intention is to promote the well-being and flourishing of individuals 3) proportionality: the principle of proportionality within JWT is closely related to the sanctity of life - it requires that the use of force in war be proportionate to the just cause with the aim of avoiding unnecessary harm and death - this reflects a commitment to respecting and valuing the sanctity of each individual life - with the discrimination clause 4) discrimination: JWT's emphasis on discriminating between combatants and non-combatants aligns with the sanctity of life - by seeking to avoid harm to civilians and non-combatants the theory recognises the inherent value of all humans 5) Post-war reconstruction: the aftermath of war is also considered within the framework of the sanctity of life - it encourages efforts to rebuild and rehabilitate societies after conflict, acknowledging the importance of restoring life to a state of normalcy

Question 49

Scripture for dominion over animals

Answer 49

'thou hast given him dominion over the works of they hands'

Question 50

Describe the idea that we have dominion over animals

Answer 50

- we are made imago dei and gave a god-given capacity for reason, the earth is to be dubidued and humans are to be feared by all other creatures - genesis 9 - 'everything that lives and moves about will be food for you' - this is the new covenant that god makes with Noah after the flood, saying everything on earth is for his use - this reaffirms what it says in the catechism, that 'god created everything for man'. Animals have been created in order to be 'food' for humans - humans have permission to use them - the bible thus has a strong anthropocentric and anthropomorphic tradition which can be seen to be detrimental to the environment

Question 51

How does an anthropomorphic view of creation suggest human arrogance

Answer 51

- strong emphasis on humans as central to the divine plan and the use of anthropmoporphic language in the bible may have negative consequences for the environment - eg it might encourage a mindset where the environment is seen rim warily in terms of its utility to humans, potentially leading to exploitation or neglect of the natural world - critics argue that an anthropocentric worldview, especcially when interpreted in a way that emphasises dominion over nature, could contribute to environmental degaradation - some theologians advocate for a more ecocentric perspective, placing a greater emphasis on the intrinsic value of the entire ecosystem rather than just its utility to humans

Question 52

Linzey

Answer 52

- argues christian theology has been slow to address the issue of animal welfare - the moral status of animals 'is at a stage somewhat similar to the feminist issue forty years ago' - he criticised the anthropocentrism of christian ethics - many assume animals only exist for out benefit, christian ethics must be theocentric instead - animals belong to god, not humans =- being a steward means caring for creation

Question 53

Dominion as power over animals

Answer 53

- these christians believe that humans are entitled to use the environment to satisfy their needs - this is supported by the 'Fall' of humanity, where the role pf humans was to control an environment - Aquinas argured humans only have indirect duties to animals as animals are just part of the human food chain, however he objected to animal cruelty - Most christians believe that animals dont have souls, without them, Aquinas and Descartes would argue, they cannot feel pain and aren't self aware - if they believer animals dont have souls then they don't care much about animal experimentation and factory farming

Question 54

dominion as stewardship

Answer 54

- some argue dominion means we should act as stewards - some christians believe that god created the world and put humans in charge of caring for it - stewardship is therefore the idea that dominion over the environment should be understood as responsible human care for it on an understanding that humans are answerable to god for their treatment of the environment - the world belongs to god because god created it, along with humans - humans have a responsibility to look after it because they've been made in the image of god - god viewed creation as good in genesis, therefore the environment has an intrinsic value, because god made it - it therefore must reflect god's goodness

Question 55

Augustine's principle of plentitude

Answer 55

- a universe with many species is much better than a universe with one, because having a huge variety of species shows the depth of god's power and the beauty of his creation - humans are therefore just one of an infinite range of entities both organic and inorganic - the natural environment includes all of heaven and earth - if the entire environment belongs to god, then stewardship must be of the entire environment and not just of humans and other animals

Question 56

Pope Francis and stewardship

Answer 56

'we are not god... the earth was here before us and it has been given to us' - laudato si - pope Francis warns us against focusing too much on dominion, we must not think the world is ours to use/abuse/exploit for our own advantage - rejected misguided anthropocentrism - 'the earth is the lord's and everything in it' - it isn't ours to exploit for our own selfish gain and advantage, the earth has existed long before us and will exist long after us

Question 57

Catechism and stewardship

Answer 57

- 'it is contrary to human dignity to cause animals to suffer or due needlessly' - this suggests that whilst medical experiments for the preservation of life would be acceptable, cosmetic treatments for profit wouldn't be - animals can only be justified suffering in experiments/death if there is a justifiable reason eg the development of a lifesaving vaccine or cure for illness - NML - primary precept is the preservation of life

Question 58

Lynn white jr and stewardship

Answer 58

- argues that many of the problems at the root of the environmental crisis have been shaped by the Judeo-christian tradition and particularly by its belief that humans have dominion over the environment - other christians argue that the crisis has developed because of our increasingly secular and sicnetiif culture

Question 59

Eco-theology

Answer 59

- the approach to environmental issues focusing on. establishing the right relationship between religion and nature, stemming from the perception that our current environmental problems are due in large part to religious misunderstanding