Habibi

Question 1

Albumin

Answer 1

Most abundant plasma protein. Large, so it stays in the circulation. Nonspecific carrier molecule that can protect molecules from degradation from being bound to albumin.

Question 2

Globulins

Answer 2

second most abundant plasma protein. specific molecule carrier (forms specific conformation) Incl: enzymes, immunoglobulins, specific carrier proteins)

Question 3

Fibrinogen

Answer 3

plasma protein. Is involved in blood coagulation. Gets converted into fibrin by activity of thrombin.

Question 4

colloid osmotic pressure

Answer 4

is the osmotic pressure caused my protein presence. Increases when protein increases. This is higher in the plasma due to the greater abundance of proteins and therefore, the net movement is into the interstitial compartment . 0.3 mm Hg outward force twd IC.

Question 5

What is the interstitial compartment composed of?

Answer 5

Collagen fibers, proteoglycans that give a gel like medium to the compartment (hyaluronic acid +protein). Only about 1% of the compartment is made of free-fluid,

Question 6

Edema

Answer 6

Swelling of the interstitial compartment . Too much free fluid in the IC. May result from changes in osmotic pressure.

Question 7

What does the gel medium in the interstitial compartment ensure?

Answer 7

• the uniform distribution of nutrients regardless of body position - not affected by gravity.
• maintains optimal spacing between cells
• mechanical support and giving shape to body parts

Question 8

Lymphatic system

Answer 8

Transfers fluid from IC into the veins. Has phagocytic cells within (in lymph nodes) that help to filter foreign substances out of the blood. Lymph nodes have resident macrophages

Question 9

Elephantiasis

Answer 9

Occurs due a blockage(filarial worms introduced by mosquitos) in the lymphatic system. Causes an increase in pressure and fluid build up in the interstitial compartment. Swelling and major accumulations of fluid. This can also lead to necrosis of cells due to the decreased flow of nutrients and gases.

Question 10

Granulocytes

Answer 10

Include basophils, neutrophils and eosinophils which are all also leukocytes. Granulocytes are derived from myeloid stem cells. Polymorphonuclear cells

Question 11

Erythropoietin

Answer 11

Stimulates differentiation from myeloid stem cells into proerythroblasts

Question 12

thrombopoietin

Answer 12

stimulates differentiation from myeloid stem cells into megakaryocytes

Question 13

granulocyte-monocyte colony stimulating factor

Answer 13

stimulate differentiation from myeloid stem cells into monocytes and granulocytes.

Question 14

monocytes

Answer 14

Are a type of leukocyte that is myeloid stem cell derived. They can later differentiate into macrophages or dendritic cells.

Question 15

What are the stem cells and intermediate cells involved in the production of erythrocytes?

Answer 15

Myeloid stem cells, proerythroblasts, basophil erythroblast, polychromatophil erythroblast, orthochromatic erythroblast, reticulocyte erythrocyte.

Question 16

What is hemoglobin A made up of?

Answer 16

4 Heme groups with their corresponding globin peptide. Hemoglobin A has 2 alpha and 2 beta subunits. This is the most abundant type of adult Hb

Question 17

What forms a heme molecule?

Answer 17

4 pyrroles form 1 protoporphyrin. Iron plus protoporphyrin forms one heme molecule.

Question 18

What is fetal hemoglobin and what makes it different from adult hemoglobin?

Answer 18

Fetal hemoglobin has 2 alpha and 2 gamma hemoglobin subunits. Fetal Hb has a greater binding affinity for oxygen and can carry 20-30% more oxygen. It is also at 50% higher concentration in fetal blood compared to adult Hb in adult blood

Question 19

Megoblastic anemia

Answer 19

vitamin b12 and follic acid deficiency - lead to diminished DNA synthesis (which is important for red blood cell production) - causes red blood cells that are bigger than normal (become too big and burst)

Question 20

Pernicious anemia

Answer 20

similar to megoblastic anemia - absorption of vitamin b12 is impaired in the Gi tract due to an intrinsic factor

Question 21

Ferritin

Answer 21

storage area and buffer for iron concentrations in the body. It prevents transient anemia by releasing iron into the body when needed.

Question 22

transferrin

Answer 22

Transferrin is a beta-globulin plasma protein that binds to iron to transport it to the bone marrow for hemoglobin production. Transferrin-iron complex binds to specific receptors on the erythroblasts in the bone marrow followed by endocytosis and delivery of iron to mitochondria for the synthesis of heme.

Question 23

Platelets

Answer 23

Broken of pieces of megakaryocytes, which are myeloid stem cell derived. Platelets do not have a nucleus but they do have some organelles.
Platelets contain:
- glycoprotein surface receptors that mediate intracellular processes and secretion of various compounds
- calcium
- thromboxane A2
- fibrin stabilizing factor
- growth factors

Question 24

thromboxane A2

Answer 24

An eicosanoid produced from platelets when activated to do so. Mediates vasoconstriction and local myogenic spasms upon blood vessel damage to reduce local blood flow and prevent blood loss.
Also activates other platelet cells to aggregate

Question 25

platelet acivation

Answer 25

Platelets are activated by collagen - activation causes the platelets to produce thromboxane a2 and ADP

Question 26

cyclooxygenase ll

Answer 26

COX ll - enzyme that converts arachidonic acid into thromboxane A2 - becomes active during platelet activation as thromboxane a2 mediates trauma response. Cox ll can be inhibited by aspirin/endomethacin

Question 27

fibrin stabilizing factor

Answer 27

Produced by activated platelets. It is activated by thrombin. It functions to help form the meshwork of the fibrin threads during clot formation.

Question 28

thrombin

Answer 28

a proteolytic enzyme which converts fibrinogen to fibrin monomers which can form the fibrin threads. Thrombin also activates fibrin stabilizing factor

Question 29

prothrombin

Answer 29

factor ll - an alpha globulin produced in the liver due to the action of vitamin K - it's proteolytic product is thrombin

Question 30

prothrombin activator

Answer 30

catalyzes the reaction of prothrombin to thrombin Upon tissue trauma - a number of clotting factors mediate the production of prothrombin activator.

Question 31

Factor lll

Answer 31

tissue thromboplastin - initiates the extrinsic pathway. It is released from the tissue following tissue trauma. Shorter in terms of clot formation

Question 32

Factor Xll

Answer 32

Hagemen factor. Upon activation, mediates the intrinsic pathway of blood coagulation.

Question 33

Factor Vlll

Answer 33

antihemophylic factor - If this is missing, in a male, the male will have hemophilia A - This factor is needed to help activate Factor X. W/o it - clot has a hard time forming - bleeding disease

Question 34

Factor V

Answer 34

proaccelerin - helps to form prothrombin activator - speeds up this process

Question 35

glycocalyx

Answer 35

it is a mucopolysaccharide layer adsorbed to the surface of the endothelial cells. It is an anticoagulant that repels clotting factors and platelets thereby preventing activation of clotting. During tissue trauma, this layer is lost which allows clotting factors can activate.

Question 36

thombomodulin

Answer 36

an alpha-2 globulin bound within the endothelial membrane that binds to thrombin which deactivates it. Anticoagulant that acts a way from the trauma site to ensure no excessive clotting occurs

Question 37

heparin

Answer 37

When combined with antithrombin lll, the effectiveness of heparin increase 100-1000 fold. Activates other factors that remove thrombin. Secretes by mast cells and basophils

Question 38

plasminogen activator

Answer 38

When Factor Xll becomes activated during tissue trauma, it initiates a second, slow cascade involved in clot dissolution. This compound causes plasminogen to be converted into plasmin, which is capable of slowly breaking down the fibrin thread. Plasmin = fibrinolysin

Question 39

megakaryocytes

Answer 39

Formed in the bone marrow. Platelet cells are derived from cell fragments from megkaryocytes

Question 40

monocytes

Answer 40

develop in the bone marrow and circulate in blood to where they are needed in the tissue. Once in the tissue, they swell and become macrophages

Question 41

chemotaxis

Answer 41

chemical substances in the tissues cause neutrophils and macrophages to move toward the source of the chemical (inflamed area)

Question 42

granulocyte-monocyte colony stimulating factor

Answer 42

Produced by macrophages to trigger bone marrow to create more macrophages and things to help with the immune response. Stimulates both granulocyte and monocyte formation

Question 43

neutrophils

Answer 43

62% of WBC. Uses extensions of membrane called pseudopedia to engulf bacteria. Results in formation of closed chamber around the bacteria. Phagocytic vesicle meets with lysosomes. both lysosomic enzymes and oxidizing agents are used to kill the bacteria ex. superoxides, hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl ions. Have receptors for complements and antibodies (opsonins)

Question 44

eosinophils

Answer 44

Granulocyte. Only about 2% leukocytes. Weak phagocytic activities but work particularly well against parasitic infections. They will attach to parasites and release substances that kill the parasites. - they migrate in large numbers to the infected area. Attach themselves to juvenile forms of the parasite and kill them using things like hydrolytic enzymes (modified lysosomes) - react to schistosomiasis and trichinella - detoxify inflammation inducing substances by releasing hydrogen peroxide

Question 45

basophils/mast cells

Answer 45

0.4% of leukocytes. Similar to large mast cells and are located outside of capillaries. These cells have IgE on their surface. Both mast cells and basophils secrete heparin, an anticoagulant. They both release, histamine, bradykinin, and serotonin. IgE binds to these cells during allergic reactions. These cells are activated by C3a

Question 46

histimine

Answer 46

Secreted by mast cells and basophils. Increases the porosity of the endothelial layer, increasing movement of water and solutes from the circulation into the tissue. Leads to edema and swelling of the tissue

Question 47

bradykinin

Answer 47

increases porosity of the endothelial layer. Secretes by basophils/mast cells

Question 48

walling off

Answer 48

during inflammation, tissue spaces are blocked off with fibrinogen clots, reducing the spread of the infection around the body

Question 49

soluble compounds

Answer 49

lysozymes, C-reactive proteins, the complement complex-system, cytokines

Question 50

macrophages

Answer 50

Are derived from monocytes which are formed from myeloid stem cells in the bone marrow. They have lysozymes in them. They have receptors for compliments and antibodies (opsonins)

Question 51

lysozymes

Answer 51

Enzymes that can attack bacterial cell walls via hydrolysis. They split the bond between N-acetylglucosamine and N-acetylmuramic acid which compromises the bacterial cell walls. Present in macrophages and in the saliva

Question 52

C-reactive protein

Answer 52

Stimulated by infection and inflammation. Acute phase protein of hepatic origin. Member of pentraxin protein family. - bind to the surface of damaged cells and bacteria which promotes activation of the compliment system - facilitates opsonization - bind to bacteria DIAGNOSTIC PROPERTIES - increased, but lower levels of CRP indicate viral infection - higher levels of CRP indicate bacterial infection

Question 53

C3b

Answer 53

Complement which acts as an opsonin

Question 54

C5a

Answer 54

chemotactic factor which attracts neutrophils and macrophages. Activate mast cells and basophils

Question 55

C3a

Answer 55

anaphylatoxin - promotes inflammation. Also triggers the lytic pathways which can damage the plasma membranes of some invading cells

Question 56

cytokines

Answer 56

biochemical messengers that stimulate leukocyte activity following infection (stimulate development of more WBC following infection). Produced by macrophages,helper T cells Examples of cytokines include: - interleukins (1-6), tumor-necrosis factor, granulocyte-monocyte colony stimulating factor, monocyte stimulating factor, granulocyte stimulating factor

Question 57

interleukin 1

Answer 57

A cytokine produced by macrophages that acts as a proliferation factor. It helps increase the number of undifferentiated cells which can be converted into a number of different WBC

Question 58

Cellular components

Answer 58

Innate immune system. Natural Killer cells and phagocytic cells

Question 59

Natural Killer cells

Answer 59

They are in the same family as B and T - lymphocytes. They bind to the surface of virally-infected cells, foreign cells, and some tumor cells. They function by using specific surface recognition. The are present in the placenta. They secrete cytokines. NK cells release granules that cause perforation of target cells. NK cells are activated by interferons. NK cells can also secrete cytokines

Question 60

interferons

Answer 60

a family of glycoproteins that are produced by virally infected cells or other lymphocytes. They activate NK cells, and other cells through specific membrane receptors, blocking the synthesis of some proteins. They act in a paracrine fashion on neighbouring cells, reducing the DNA replications of viral cells, reducing the spread of the virus. Form the first line of defense against viral infections

Question 61

polymorphonuclear cells

Answer 61

basophils, neutrophils, eosinophils

Question 62

igG

Answer 62

immunoglobulin G - constitutes about 75% of our antibodies. reduces functionality of toxins via immunoneutralization. bivalent

Question 63

igE

Answer 63

immunoglobulin E - involved in allergic reactions. Present on the surface of basophils and mast-cells. Involved in parasitic immunity and allergic reaction. They interact with allergens and by doing so, causes the mast cells to release oxidizing agents and histamines involved in immune and inflammation response.

Question 64

agglutination`

Answer 64

a way antibodies can inactivate the invading agent - multiple compounds bound to antigens bind together to form a clump

Question 65

precipitation

Answer 65

antibody binds and renders the compound insoluble

Question 66

neutralization

Answer 66

antibody covers the toxic site of the antigen

Question 67

lysis

Answer 67

some antibodies are capable of directly attacking the membrane of the antigen

Question 68

classical pathway activation

Answer 68

Once the antigen-antibody complex is formed, the constant portion of the antibody will then be able to directly activate C1 of the complement system

Question 69

antigen-presenting cells

Answer 69

macrophages, B-cells and dendritic cells. Have MHC proteins on their surface

Question 70

IgA

Answer 70

~15% of antibodies. Major immunoglobulin in sero-mucus secretion. Ex. through: milk, colostrum, saliva, genito-urinary secretion (present on mucus surfaces) - important for providing passive immunity to the offspring while their immune system is developing - has 4 binding sites for binding antigens

Question 71

igM

Answer 71

10% of circulating Ig. pentameric. One of the first antibodies to arrive - aid in the attack against antigenically complex organisms. They cause agglutinization - complex clumping. Allows the macrophage to recognize easily

Question 72

igD

Answer 72

1% of circulating Ig. Major form on the membrane of B-lymphocytes. May play a role in triggering of lymphocyte differentiation -- they act like a receptor on the surface of B cells. Once activated by an antigen, they can secrete more antibodies with a similar binding domain!

Question 73

Mannose binding lectin

Answer 73

activates the complement system

Question 74

Antibodies

Answer 74

There are gamma globulins and consist of 2 light chains and 2 dark chains - light and ark chains are connected by a disulfide bond. Bind to antigens, are formed by plasma cells. aka immunoglobulins. Have a variable fragment antigen binding (Fab) domain and a constant fragment crystalline (Fc) domain. The Fc domain can bind complements, leukocytes host tissue once the Fab domain has been bound and activated by the antigen.

Question 75

epitopes

Answer 75

proteins on the surface of the antigen which antibodies can bind to. aka antigenic determinant domain.

Question 76

Helper T cells

Answer 76

secrete a number of cytokines once activated. Needed for the immune system to function efficiently. Once activated, helper T cells secrete B-cell proliferation factors. T-cells only recognize antigens when they are bound to MHC proteins on the surface of antigen presenting cells. Helper T cells only bind to MHC ll proteins on antigen presenting cells. - upon activation, they secrete cytokines and T-cell and B-cell proliferation factors

Question 77

MHC

Answer 77

major histocombatibility complex. The MHC proteins bind peptide fragments of antigen proteins that are degraded inside antigen presenting cells and then transport them to the cell surface.

Question 78

Cytotoxic T-cells

Answer 78

killer cells. Involved in invader cell destruction. Secrete perforin compound which mediates hole formation in the invading cell. Cytotoxic compounds can then be injected into the invading cell, resulting in a cascade that leads to apoptosis. Particularly by cells infected by a virus. MHC l proteins on antigen presenting cells activate cytotoxic T-cells.

Question 79

Class 1 MHC

Answer 79

When on an antigen presenting cell, they activate cytotoxic T-cells. These are found on the surface of all cells except red blood cells

Question 80

Class 2 MHC

Answer 80

Only on the surface of macrophages and B-cells. Recognized only by Helper T-cells

Question 81

coreceptors

Answer 81

CD4 and CD8. Involved with the restriction of which cells can interact with which. Killer T cells contain coreceptor CD8 activated by antigen presented with Class 1 MHC. Target cell presents antigen with Class 1 MHC. Helper T cells contain coreceptors CD4 - which are activated by antigens present by Class 2 MHC

Question 82

Suppressor T-cells

Answer 82

Act as regulatory T-cells. Limits the activity of Helper T cells and cytotoxic T cells. Modulating excessive activity of the immune system.

Question 83

hematocrit

Answer 83

percentage of the blood taken up by rbcs. lower than 10% decrease in hematocrit percentage could be lethal

Question 84

colony-forming unit-erythrocyte (CFU-E)

Answer 84

committed cells that become erythrocytes