HDFS Exam #1 Flashcards
1
Q
What are the major development theories?
A
- Psychodynamic
- Behavioral
- Cognitive
- Humanistic
- Contextual
- Evolutionary
2
Q
Heredity
A
the transmission of genetic characteristics from parent to child
3
Q
What are the issues present in developmental study?
A
- Nature vs Nurture
- Continuity vs Discontinuity
- Universal vs Context-specific
4
Q
What is the Nature vs Nurture issue?
A
biological predisposition vs environment
5
Q
What is the Continuity vs Discontinuity issue?
A
Is development gradual or abrupt?
6
Q
What is the Universal vs Context-specific issue?
A
What is the same vs different?
7
Q
Universal development
A
normative developments that all individuals display
8
Q
Context-specific development
A
developmental outcomes that vary from person to person
9
Q
Theory
A
broad, organized explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest
- ground and guide research
10
Q
Behaviorism
A
Key people: Pavlov
Key Info: Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning, Consequences
11
Q
Social-Learning
A
Key people: Bandura
Key Info: observation, active information processors, self-efficacy
12
Q
Self-efficacy
A
One’s beliefs about one’s abilities and talents
13
Q
Cognitive Development Theory
A
Key people: Piaget
Key Info: Sensorimotor, Preoperational thought, Concrete operational thought, Formal operational thought
14
Q
Bioecological systems
A
Key people: Bronfenbrenner
Key Info: Microsystem, Mesosystem, Exosystem, Macrosystem, Environment
15
Q
Environment (Bronfenbrenner definition)
A
a set of nested structures each inside the next
- starts with individual and expands to society
16
Q
Sociocultural theory
A
Key people: Vygotsky
Key info:
- Culture must be taken into account for development
- Reciprocal transaction between the people in a child’s environment and the child
17
Q
scientific method
A
process of posing and answering questions using careful, controlled techniques that include systematic, orderly observation, collection of data
18
Q
What is research used for?
A
- knowledge
- intervention
- public policy
19
Q
What are the four approaches to human development/behavior?
A
- Systematic observation
- Using structured tasks to elicit behaviors
- Self-reports/surveys
- Physiological measures
20
Q
correlational studies
A
type of study which can only determine if a correlation is present
(correlation does NOT equal causation)
21
Q
experiment studies
A
- Controlled study of cause and effect
- Participants are randomly assigned to
- Experimental group
- Control group
22
Q
Cross-sectional studies
A
Look at children of different ages at the same point in time
23
Q
Longitudinal studies
A
Observations of participants in one cohort over time
24
Q
What are the building blocks of the brain?
A
- glial cells
- nerve cells
25
Pruning
selective reduction of neurons and connections among neurons
26
When do the periods of intense branching, then pruning occur?
- Before birth to 3 years
- 11-12 years
27
When does synapse formation occur?
36 weeks-2 years
28
When does synapse pruning occur?
4-6 years
29
"Use it or lose it" factor
unused nerve circuits are pruned away
- "If you don't use it, you lose it"
30
The neuron doctrine
"cells that fire together, wire together"
31
What are the longest periods of Growth/Pruning
- Self-regulation
- Problem-solving
- Social bonding
- Judgment/decision making
32
Brain plasticity
the brain's ability to change in response to experience
33
Central Nervous System (CNS)
network of nerves contained within the brain and spinal cord
34
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
the network of nerves that radiate from the central nervous system to the rest of the body. The PNS comprises the somatic and autonomic nervous system; comprised of somatic and autonomic nervous systems
35
Spinal cord
neural tissue; information superhighway
36
Genes
basic units of genetic information; the software that programs the future development of the body's hardware
37
Genotype
an organism's genetic inheritance; genetic potential
38
Phenotype
observable characteristics of a person
39
Dominant trait
trait present when two competing traits are present
40
Recessive trait
present but not expressed
41
Homozygous
both dominant or recessive
(BB, bb)
42
Heterozygous
one dominant and one recessive but dominant is expressed
(Bb)
43
Which of the big five personality traits are linked to genetic factors?
- Neuroticism
- Extroversion
44
What is the relationship between genetic link and IQ?
Closer genetic link=greater similarity of overall IQ scores
45
Which psychological disorders are related to genetic factors?
Schizophrenia
Depression
Alcoholism
Autism
ADHD
46
Dizygotic (fraternal) twins
Twins from different eggs fertilized by two different sperm
47
Monozygotic (identical) twins
Twins from one egg and one sperm that splits in two after conception
48
Epigenetics
How behavior and environment can cause changes to how genes work and operate
- Cells can become abnormal due to epigenetics
49
What are the two ways to modify histones?
(histones=basic proteins in chromatin)
- Methylation
- Acetylation
50
Methylation
Attachment of a methyl group
- Suppresses gene expression
51
Acetylation
Attachment of an acetyl group
- Activates a gene
52
Hypoxia
Decreased oxygen to fetus
Change in heart rate shows fetus is distressed
53
Cesarean section (c-section)
Surgical removal of infant
Higher risk than natural birth
Rates of medically unnecessary c-sections are growing
Longer recovery
Risk of maternal infection
Rise in unnecessary c-sections
54
Premature
delivered at or before 37 weeks
Lags in development for 1st year
55
Small for Date
Born on time but physically small
Below 10th percentile in weight
- typically from maternal risk factors; more likely to have long term consequences
56
Postpartum depression
Chronic for 10-15% of mothers
Affects parenting and bonding with infant
Breastfeeding moms are less likely to become depressed
57
Rhythms
Repetitive; cyclical patterns of behavior
58
State
One of major body rhythms
Degree of awareness infant displays to internal and external stimulation
59
States of Alertness
- Alert inactivity (quiet awake)
- Waking activity (active awake)
- Crying
- Sleeping
60
How often do babies sleep?
16-17 hours daily (naps every 3 hours)
- 3-4 months: 5-6 hours a night
- 6 months: 10-12 hours
61
What stimuli are babies most responsive to?
speech-like sounds
(mother's voice, their name, native language, etc.)
62
How do babies learn?
- classical conditioning
- operant conditioning
- habituation
63
Classical conditioning
Learn to respond in a particular way to neutral stimulus that does not bring about that response typically
64
Operant conditioning
Voluntary response is strengthened/weakened depending on environmental response
65
Habituation
Decrease in the response to a stimulus after repeated presentation
- lower heart rate
- no response over time
66
Decasper and Fifer (1980) study
Newborns suck more in response to their mother's voice on recording
67
Decasper and Spence (1984) study
16 pregnant mothers read The Cat in the Hat
- Twice a day for 6.5 weeks of pregnancy
Newborns sucked more when they heard The Cat in the Hat
68
Stages of Erikson's Psychosocial Theory
Trust vs Mistrust
Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt
Initiative vs Guilt
Industry vs Inferiority
Identity vs Role Confusion
Intimacy vs Isolation
Generativity vs Stagnation
Ego-integrity vs Despair
69
Trust vs Mistrust
(Birth to 18 months)
Develop sense that the world is a good place
70
Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt
(12-18 months to 3 years)
Sense of independence
71
Initiative vs Guilt
(3 to 5-6 years)
Ability to try and master things
72
Industry vs Inferiority
(5-6 years to adolescence)
Learn basic skills and the ability to work with others
73
Identity vs Role Confusion
(Adolescence to adulthood)
Develop a sense of self
74
Intimacy vs Isolation
(Early adulthood)
Develop intimate relationships
75
Generativity vs Stagnation
(middle adulthood)
Contribute to society (having a family or working)
76
Ego-integrity vs Despair
(Late adulthood)
View life as meaningful
77
Attachment
an enduring socioemotional relationship
78
Stranger anxiety
Result of improved cognitive skills
Memory developed
- Appearance of unknown person causes fear
- can remember faces they've seen before
79
Separation anxiety
- Universal across culture
- Begins about 7-8 months; peaks at ~14 months
- Similar causes as stranger anxiety
80
Ainsworth's Strange Situation Experiment
used to test attachment styles
- separation of mother from baby and reunion when mother comes back
81
What are the 4 attachment styles?
Secure
Avoidant
Resistant/Ambivalent
Disorganized-disoriented
82
Secure attachment
upset when mom leaves/happy upon return of the mother
60-65%
83
Avoidant attachment
not upset when mom leaves/ignores upon return
20%
84
Resistant/Ambivalent attachment
upset when mom leaves/upset upon return of mother
10-15%
85
Disorganized-disoriented attachment
confused/contradictory
5-10%
86
What do emotions include?
Feelings
Physiological reactions
Cognition/thoughts
Goal
87
Basic emotions
universal emotions such as joy, anger, fear, interest, disgust, distress, sadness and surprise
88
Examples of basic emotions
Joy
Anger
Interest
Disgust
Surprise
Sadness
Fear
89
Development of positive emotions
Birth
- Reflects contentment
2 months
- Social smiles
3-6 months
- BIG social smiles
6-7 months
- More selective with smiles
90
What emotions increase by 6 months of age?
Anger
Sadness
- due to growth in cognitive abilites
91
Still Face Experiment
Mom interacts normally with baby, then makes a still face
The baby reacts with negative emotions and tries to regain the mother's attention and responsiveness
92
What is the last basic emotion to develop?
Fear
- shown at 6-7 months of age
93
Complex emotions
self-conscious emotions that emerge in the 2-3 years and depend in part on cognitive development
- Rely on self-awareness
94
Rouge Test Results
12 months- babies ouch the mark on the nose in the mirror
15 months- some babies touch their own noses/most by 24 months
-reactions reflect baby's level of self-recognition
95
When can toddlers experience embarrassment?
Toddlers can feel embarrassment when they become aware of themselves and have self-awareness
96
Social referencing
the use of other's emotional expressions to gain information about an ambiguous situation
(7-10 months)- look at parents' emotions
(12 months)- reference strangers
97
Example of desire language
"I know you want a cookie. I'm sorry you are sad that you can't have that"
Children become better at recognizing emotions
98
Example of Conversational Style
Elaborative storybook reading
Ask child open-ended questions
99
Theory of Mind (TOM)
children's understanding of others' thoughts, beliefs, intentions, and behavior
- helps children understand intention and desire
100
Cracker vs Broccoli Study Results
Older babies give the researcher the broccoli
- Shows older babies have TOM
Younger babies give the researcher the crackers because that's what they like
101
Unwilling vs Unable study results
Differentiate intentional from accidental acts
At 9 months, babies know the difference between unwilling and unable
102
Temperament
patterns of arousal and emotionality that are consistent and enduring characteristics of an individual
103
What are the characteristics of temperament?
Activity level
Approach/ Withdrawal
Quality of mood
Distractibility
Adaptability
Rhythmicity
Responsiveness
104
Thomas and Chess Categories of Temperament
Easy babies- 40%
Difficult babies- 10%
Slow-to-warm babies- 15%
Inconsistently categorized babies - 35%
105
Emotional self-regulation
capacity to control emotions and to adjust emotional arousal to an appropriate level of intensity to achieve one's aims
106
What does emotional self-regulation manage?
Feelings
Physiological responses
Emotion-related cognitions
Emotion-related behavior
107
How does early socialization develop?
6-12 months
- Start to initiate self-regulation
18-24 months
- Try to control the actions of people or objects
- Better at distracting themselves
24 months +
- Use cognitive strategies
- Talk about emotions
- can experience fear
108
Emotional display rules
culturally defined rules specifying which emotions should or shouldn't be expressed under which circumstances
- act of hiding and faking feelings (starts at age 3)
109
The Present Test results
Girls learn self-control earlier than boys
Children use strategies to not give in to temptation
- Close eyes
- Turn around
110
What are the stages of prenatal development?
The Germinal stage (fertilization-2 weeks)
The Embryonic stage (2-8 weeks)
The Fetal Stage (8 weeks-birth)
111
Germinal Stage
(fertilization to 2 weeks)
The egg is fertilized and is implanted on the wall of the uterus
Rapid cell division
Embryo is less than a millimeter
112
Embryonic Stage
(2 to 8 weeks)
Development of
- Body structure
- Internal organs
- Brain
- Nervous system
Embryo rests in amniotic fluid; amnion
113
Fetal Stage
(8 weeks to birth)
Major brain development
Neurons become coated with myelin
Respiratory and digestive systems develop
Age of viability (can survive)
114
What 2 studies caused the ethical reevaluation of experiments?
Milgram Study
Stanford Prison Experiment
115
The Milgram Study
How far would people go to follow orders?
- Experimenter told the participant to continue to give shocks
- Participants gave shocks to students when they answered wrong
65% gave the maximum shocks
Participants were distraught and angry after the experiment when they were debriefed
116
The Stanford Prison Experiment (1971)
Random assignment of prisoners and guards
Guards started to abuse their power and prisoners were disturbed
Guards acted like how they thought actual guards acted
117
Sequential studies
research in which researchers examine a number of different age groups over several points in time
- Combines longitudinal and cross-sectional research
118
cohort effects
history graded influences
119
naturalistic observation/research
A type of correlational study in which some naturally occurring behavior is observed without intervention in the situation
120
cross-sectional research
research in which people of different ages are compared at the same point in time
121
longitudinal research
research in which the behavior of one or more participants in a study is measured as they age
122
sample
the group of participants chosen for the experiment
123
maturation
the predetermined unfolding of genetic information
(Nature)
124
soma
all the living matter of an animal or a plant except the reproductive, or germ, cells.
125
sensory neglect
an inability to attend to sensory information, usually from the left side of the body, as a result of brain injury, most often to the right hemisphere
126
blindsight
psychological defense mechanism, caused by a self-protective need to deny visual information that might cause fear, anxiety, or shame.
127
neurogenesis
the process by which new neurons are formed in the brain
128
zygote
he new cell formed by the process of fertilization
129
genes
he basic unit of genetic information
130
DNA molecules
the substance that genes are composed of that determines the nature of every cell in the body and how it will function
131
chromosomes
rod-shaped portions of DNA that are organized in 23 pairs
(46 in humans)
132
monozygotic twins
twins who are genetically identical
- Cluster of cells splits from one original zygote
133
dizygotic twins
twins who are produced when two separate ova are fertilized by two separate sperm at roughly the same time
- not more genetically similar than siblings
134
dominant trait
the one trait that is expressed when two competing traits are present
135
recessive trait
a trait within an organism that is present but is not expressed
136
genotype
the underlying combination of genetic material present (but not outwardly visible) in an organism
137
phenotype
an observable trait; trait that is seen
138
behavioral genetics
the study of the effects of heredity on behavior
(How is our personality affected by genetics?)
139
Amniocentesis
the process of identifying genetic defects by examining a small sample size of fetal cells drawn by a needle inserted into the amniotic fluid surrounding the unborn fetus
(15th-20th week of pregnancy)
140
Temperament
patterns of arousal and emotionality that represent consistent and ensuring characteristics of an individual
141
Neuroticism
the degree of emotional stability an individual characteristically displays
142
Extroversion
the degree to which a person seeks to be with others and be sociable
143
Germinal stage
the first and shortest stage of the prenatal period, which takes place during the first 2 weeks following conception
144
placenta
a conduit between the mother and fetus, providing nourishment and oxygen via the umbilical cord
145
Embryonic stage
the period from 2-8 weeks following fertilization during which significant growth occurs in the major organs and body systems
146
Fetal stage
the stage that begins at about 8 weeks after conception and continues until birth
147
fetus
a developing child, from 8 weeks after conception until birth
148
infertility
the inability to conceive after 12-18 months of trying to become pregnant
149
Teratogen
a factor that produces a birth defect
(drug, chemical, virus)
150
Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD)
a disorder caused by the pregnant mother consuming substantial quantities of alcohol during pregnancy, potentially resulting in mental retardation and delayed growth
151
Fetal alcohol effects (FAE)
a condition in which children display some problems of FASD from their mother's consumption of alcohol during pregnancy
152
neonates
term for newborns
153
Apgar scale
a standard measurement systems that looks for a variety of indications of good health in newborns
(Appearance, Pulse, Grimace, Activity, Respiration)
154
anoxia
a restriction of oxygen to the baby, lasting a few minutes during the birth process, which can produce cognitive defects
155
Low-birth weight infants
infants who weigh less than 2,500 grams (around 5.5 pounds) after birth
156
Small-for-gestational-age infants
nfants who have delayed fetal growth and weigh 90 percent or less of the average weight of infants of the same gestational age
157
very low birthweight infants
infants who weigh less than 1,250 grams (2.25 pounds) or have been in the womb less than 30 weeks
158
reflexes
unlearned, organized involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli
159
Habituation
the decrease in the response to a stimulus that occurs after repeated presentations of the same stimulus
160
States of arousal
different degrees of sleep and wakefulness through which newborns cycle, ranging from deep sleep to great agitation
161
Cephalocaudal principle
the principle that growth follows a pattern that begins with the head and upper body parts and then proceeds down to the rest of the body
(Ex: Develop vision before learning to walk)
162
Proximodistal principle
the principle that development proceeds from the center of the body outward
(Ex: Use of arms comes before use of hands )
163
Principle of hierarchical integration
the principle that simple skills typically develop separately and independently but are later integrated into more complex skills
(child uses fingers first then they can grasp an object)
164
Principle of the independent systems
the principle that different body systems grow at different rates
(Ex: Patterns of body size growth and the nervous system are different )
165
state
the degree of awareness an infant displays to both internal and external stimulation
166
Rhythms
repetitive, cyclical patterns of behavior
167
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)
the unexplained death of a seemingly healthy baby
168
schemes
an organized pattern of functioning that adapts and changes with mental functioning
169
Assimilation
The process by which people understand an experience in terms of their current stage of cognitive development and way of thinking stimulus is acted upon, perceived, and understood in accordance with existing patterns of thought
170
Accomodation
Changes in existing ways of thinking that occur in response to encounters with new stimuli or events
- Modifies existing schema when new information is presented
171
Object permeance
the realization that people and objects exist even when they can't be seen
172
What are the 3 aspects of Information Processing?
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
173
Encoding
The process by which information is initially recorded in a form useable to memory
174
Storage
The placement of material into memory
175
Retrieval
The process by which material in memory storage is located, brought into awareness, and used
176
Automatization
the degree to which an activity requires attention
- Little attention- automatic
- Large amounts of attention- controlled
177
memory
the process by which information is initially recorded, stored, and retrieved
178
Infantile amnesia
the lack of memory for experiences that occurred before age 3
179
Development quotient (Arnold Gesell)
An overall development score that relates to performance in four domains
- motor skills
- language use
- adaptive behavior
- personal-social behavior
180
Babbling
making speechlike but meaningless sounds
- universal
181
Holophrases
one-word utterances that stand for a whole phrase, the meaning of which depends on the particular context in which they are used
182
Telegraphic speech
speech in which words not critical to the message are omitted
(Ex: "I show book")
183
Under extension
the overly restrictive use of words, common among children just mastering a spoken language
(Ex: "blankie" instead of "blanket")
184
Overextension
the overly broad use of words, overgeneralizing their meaning
(Ex: trucks, buses and tractors are referred to as "cars")
185
motherese/Infant-directed speech
a type of speech directed toward infants, characterized by short, simple sentences
-Higher pitch
- Increased range of frequency
- Intonation is varied
186
Basic emotions
universal emotions such as joy, anger, fear, interest, disgust, distress, sadness and surprise
187
Complex emotions
self-conscious emotions that emerge in the 2-3 years and depends in part on cognitive development
- Rely on self-awareness
188
Multimodel perception
The effects that concurrent stimulation in more than one sensory modality has on the perception of events and objects in the world
- concern the binding of inputs from multiple sensory modalities
189
Social referencing
the use of other's emotional expressions to gain information about an ambiguous situation
190
Emotional display rules
culturally defined rules specifying which emotions should or shouldn't be expressed under which circumstances
- starts at age 3
-Hiding true feeling and faking feelings
191
Attachment
an enduring socioemotional relationship
192
Still Face Experiment
Mom interacts normally with baby, then makes a still face
The baby reacts with negative emotions and tries to regain the mother's attention and responsiveness
193
Self-awareness
the ability to focus on yourself and how your actions, thoughts, or emotions do or don't align with your internal standards
194
A-Not-B Error
Error in the mental perception of objects seen in infants before the age of one year
- Babies still look under cup A for the toy when they saw the researcher move it to cup B
195
Possible vs Impossible tasks (Unwilling vs Unable study)
Differentiate intentional from accidental acts; occurs at about 9 months
196
Goodness of fit
a statistical test that determines how well sample data fits a distribution from a population with a normal distribution
197
Perception
the state of being or process of becoming aware of something through the senses
198
Personality
the combination of characteristics or qualities that form an individual's distinctive character
199
Universal listener
born able to distinguish between world's languages
200
Specialized listener
by 10-12 months focus on what they hear in their environment
