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HE final Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the three main geological eras in the evolution of vertebrates?

A

Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic

Paleozoic: 539-252 million years ago; Mesozoic: 252-66 million years ago; Cenozoic: 66 million years ago to now.

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2
Q

What is the watchmaker analogy proposed by William Paley?

A

Argument for the existence of God or a designer based on the complexity of nature

If a watch is found, it implies a watchmaker; similarly, the complexity of nature implies an intelligent designer.

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3
Q

What is Richard Dawkins’ counterargument to the watchmaker analogy?

A

Mutations are blind; selection provides direction

Dawkins argues that evolution operates through random mutations rather than intentional design.

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4
Q

What does evolutionary tinkering refer to?

A

Evolution works with existing structures and gives them new functions

It does not invent new structures but repurposes what is already available.

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5
Q

Define exaptation or co-option.

A

Genes or structures obtain a function different from their original function

Example: mammary glands evolving from skin glands.

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6
Q

What is the significance of Ardipithecus ramidus in human evolution?

A

Shows characteristics of bipedalism while retaining some ancestral traits

Provides insight into the transition from quadrupedalism to bipedalism.

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7
Q

What defines hominins?

A

Bipedalism is the defining feature

Hominins include species like Ardipithecus and Australopithecus.

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8
Q

What is mosaic evolution?

A

Not all traits evolve at the same time or rate

Some traits may remain ancestral while others become derived.

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9
Q

What are the trends observed in primates?

A
  • Larger, more elaborate brains
  • Complex behavior

These trends indicate increased cognitive abilities.

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10
Q

What is the hourglass model in EVO-DEVO?

A

Describes a pattern of embryonic development variation across species

Early stages are variable, the phylotypic stage is conserved, and later stages diverge.

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11
Q

What is homeosis in developmental biology?

A

Transformation from one body part to another caused by homeotic genes

Homeotic genes act as master regulators in development.

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12
Q

What is the difference between orthologs and paralogs?

A
  • Orthologs: evolved from a common ancestral gene
  • Paralogs: duplicates within the same genome

Both terms refer to relationships between genes in different species.

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13
Q

What is the trade-off between number and quality of offspring?

A

An organism can have many offspring with little care or fewer, well-nurtured ones

This reflects a key aspect of life history strategies.

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14
Q

What is the significance of parental investment in life history strategies?

A

Parental investment can critically impact offspring survival

The amount of care and resources devoted to offspring affects their fitness.

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15
Q

What is the placenta’s role in mammalian reproduction?

A

Facilitates nutrient and gas exchange between mother and fetus

The placenta’s morphology can vary significantly among species.

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16
Q

What is maternal-fetal conflict?

A

The fetus wants to extract resources for growth while the mother considers her health and future reproduction

This conflict arises because the fetus is only partially genetically related to the mother.

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17
Q

What does the fetus aim to extract from the mother?

A

As many resources as possible to maximize its own growth and survival

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18
Q

What is the main conflict between maternal and paternal interests?

A

Maternal-paternal conflict: mother wants to balance current investment with future reproduction

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19
Q

What is genomic imprinting?

A

When only one copy of a gene (mom or dad) is expressed, the other is silenced

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20
Q

Which gene is paternally expressed and promotes fetal growth?

A

IGF2

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21
Q

What are the maternal growth suppressing genes?

A

IGF2R and GRB10

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22
Q

What does maternal constraint limit?

A

Cap how much a fetus can grow based on uterine size, placental blood flow, nutrient availability, and maternal health

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23
Q

What is the average birth weight in humans compared to optimal birth weight?

A

Lower than optimal birth weight

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24
Q

What evolutionary trend is observed in humans regarding maturation?

A

A longer juvenile period and delayed reproduction compared to ancestors

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25
What is the relationship between juvenile mortality and evolutionary fitness?
Juvenile mortality is the most important to evolutionary fitness
26
What does the disposable soma theory suggest?
Organisms age because they allocate limited energy to reproduction rather than to indefinite maintenance of their bodies
27
What is the role of antagonist pleiotropy in evolution?
Some genes that increase reproduction early might reduce lifespan later
28
What does the convergent evolution hypothesis explain?
Similar traits evolve separately in unrelated groups due to similar ecological roles and environmental pressures
29
What is the encephalization quotient (EQ)?
Compares actual brain size to the expected brain size for an animal of a given body size
30
What is the significance of the FOXP2 gene?
Key gene in speech and language; mutations lead to speech and language deficits
31
What is the grandmother hypothesis?
Grandmothers can increase the reproductive success of their daughters, enhancing their own genetic contribution
32
What does kin selection refer to?
Being good to somebody because they are related to you, benefiting the spread of your own genes
33
What is the definition of sociality?
The tendency of groups or individuals to develop social links, cooperate, and live in communities
34
What is the evolutionary significance of larger brains?
Larger brains evolved due to ecological intelligence and social demands
35
What are mismatch diseases?
Conditions caused by rapid environmental changes that lead to adaptations that are no longer advantageous
36
What is lactase persistence?
The continued production of lactase, the enzyme that digests lactose, into adulthood
37
What does Hamilton's rule explain?
Genetic success = direct fitness (own offspring) + indirect fitness (helping kin reproduce) - r x B > C
38
Fill in the blank: The evolution of large brain size in humans induced high ______ costs.
energetic
39
True or False: Natural selection acts more strongly on individuals than entire groups.
True
40
What is the genetic basis for lactose tolerance in adults?
Lactase persistence ## Footnote Lactase persistence allows some human populations to continue producing the enzyme that digests lactose into adulthood.
41
How long would it take for a mutation providing a 5% advantage to spread from 1% to 90%?
8000 years
42
What happens to pathogens when people migrate?
They may leave behind pathogens, vectors, and symbionts ## Footnote Vectors include organisms like mosquitoes, and symbionts are organisms they co-evolved with.
43
What is the HbS allele associated with?
Sickle cell disease ## Footnote The HbS allele is common in Sub-Saharan Africa and overlaps with malaria endemic regions.
44
What is a mismatch in genetics?
When genetic traits are no longer advantageous in a new environment
45
What is the correlation between exposure to parasites and autoimmune diseases?
Negative correlation ## Footnote Reduced exposure to parasites may lead to increased rates of asthma, allergies, and autoimmune diseases.
46
What autoimmune inflammatory bowel disease is more common in industrialized countries?
Crohn's disease
47
What is the Old Friends Theory?
The theory that reduced contact with various microorganisms leads to increased autoimmune diseases
48
What are the three modes of speciation?
* Allopatric speciation * Parapatric speciation * Sympatric speciation
49
Define allopatric speciation.
A group separates and occupies a new area with a natural barrier between them
50
What is parapatric speciation?
Origin of a new species on the border of a distribution range with no reproductive isolation yet
51
What is sympatric speciation?
Different species evolve in the same geographic area adapting to different lifestyles
52
What does speciation require?
Reproductive isolation between populations
53
What is the significance of the Dali skull in the context of human evolution?
It is considered a transitory form between Homo erectus and Homo sapiens
54
What percentage of modern human DNA comes from Neanderthals?
2.5%
55
What is adaptive introgression?
The incorporation of advantageous alleles from one species into another through hybridization
56
What does phenotypic plasticity refer to?
The ability of one genotype to produce multiple phenotypes
57
What are reaction norms?
Range of trait values that can be expressed from a single genotype by environmental variation
58
What is the thrifty phenotype hypothesis?
Suboptimal conditions during development induce alternative developmental trajectories with immediate survival benefits
59
What is the relationship between early life conditions and adult health according to the Hunger winter cohort study?
Adverse early life conditions can lead to increased risks of adult health problems
60
What is epigenetics?
Regulation of genes based on environmental factors
61
What is the significance of the insulin receptor (INSR) in epigenetics?
It is involved in changes in DNA methylation that affect health outcomes
62
What is the predictive adaptive response in the context of larval diets?
The phenomenon where organisms on poor larval diets perform better under low food conditions, while those on good diets perform worse. ## Footnote This concept highlights the adaptability of organisms to their developmental environments.
63
What was observed in the Finnish famine study regarding cervical rates?
No differences in cervical rates among people born in years with high crop yields vs low crop yields. ## Footnote This counters the predictive adaptive response hypothesis, suggesting poor conditions may only infer fitness costs.
64
What are key considerations when choosing a model organism for research?
* Phenotype expression * Genetic information availability * Genome size * Biological complexity * Life history * Robustness * Diet * Existing laboratory techniques ## Footnote These factors influence the suitability of model organisms for specific scientific inquiries.
65
What model organism is known for its relevance to studying Parkinson's disease?
Caenorhabditis elegans ## Footnote This nematode shares essential biological functions with humans and has been instrumental in understanding the disease mechanisms.
66
What is the significance of Drosophila melanogaster in genetic research?
Used for random mutagenesis to screen phenotypes and identify genes linked to specific genotypes. ## Footnote Its complexity and ease of culture make it a valuable model for various biological studies.
67
Fill in the blank: The __________ is a vertebrate model organism that has a transparent embryo and is easy to culture.
Zebrafish
68
What is Peto's paradox in relation to cancer incidence?
The observation that larger animals do not necessarily have higher cancer rates despite having more somatic cells and cell divisions. ## Footnote This challenges the assumption that body size correlates directly with cancer risk.
69
What role do stem cells play in cancer development?
They have potential to proliferate and differentiate but can also become cancerous, contributing to tumor formation. ## Footnote The tumor suppressor gene p53 is often disabled in cancer cases, impacting stem cell behavior.
70
What is the relationship between cancer and evolutionary theory?
Cancer can be viewed as a form of cellular evolution, with factors like clonal reproduction and environmental restrictions influencing its development. ## Footnote Understanding cancer through an evolutionary lens can enhance treatment strategies.
71
True or False: Cancer is heritable.
False ## Footnote Cancer is not inherited in a generational sense but involves mutations that can arise during an individual's lifetime.
72
What is the Neolithic Revolution characterized by?
The start of farming and a sedentary lifestyle, leading to population growth and social hierarchy. ## Footnote This period marked a significant shift in human society and dietary practices.
73
What is the significance of the Movius line in cultural evolution?
It represents the geographical divide in tool use and technology development, suggesting cultural transmission challenges. ## Footnote The existence of this line raises questions about the continuity of tool-making skills in early human populations.
74
What adaptations have humans made in relation to modern diets?
* Lactase persistence for dairy consumption * Increased amylase copy number for starch digestion * Co-evolution of gut microbiome ## Footnote These adaptations reflect the evolutionary responses to dietary changes over time.
75
Fill in the blank: The __________ is a cultural behavior that involves modifying objects to serve specific purposes.
Tool making
76
What are the implications of urbanization and industrialization on human health?
Changes in diet, physical activity, family structure, and technology can lead to health issues like obesity and metabolic disorders. ## Footnote The shift from rural to urban living has profound effects on lifestyle and health outcomes.
77
What does the term 'cultural evolution' entail?
Behavior conducted by most members of a group for a prolonged period, passed on through imitation and social learning. ## Footnote Cultural evolution interacts with biological evolution, influencing human development.
78
What is the role of environmental factors in cancer development?
They can induce cellular damage and inflammation, contributing to cancer risk. ## Footnote Pollutants and lifestyle choices significantly affect cancer rates and progression.
79
What is the relationship between body size and cancer rates according to current understanding?
No linear relationship; larger animals do not necessarily experience higher cancer rates compared to humans. ## Footnote This is a key observation in the study of cancer biology and evolution.
80
What is the physical activity level (PAL) of hunter gatherers?
1.85 ## Footnote PAL is a measure of daily energy expenditure relative to resting metabolic rate.
81
What is the PAL of Neolithic farmers?
1.78 ## Footnote This reflects their lifestyle and energy expenditure compared to hunter gatherers.
82
What is the PAL of office workers?
1.56 ## Footnote This indicates a significantly lower level of physical activity.
83
What happens if a hunter gatherer or Neolithic farmer maintains a diet of 3000 calories while becoming an office worker?
They will get fat faster ## Footnote This is due to the mismatch between energy intake and lower energy expenditure.
84
What health risks are increased by a sedentary lifestyle?
Diabetes and cardiovascular diseases ## Footnote Sedentary behavior is linked to various chronic health conditions.
85
What is one factor contributing to obesity related to sleep?
Sleep deprivation ## Footnote Hunter gatherers slept significantly more than modern populations.
86
What hormone increases blood sugar levels and hunger, while also affecting the immune system?
Cortisol ## Footnote High cortisol levels can lead to increased appetite and fat accumulation.
87
Why does increased cortisol make sense for Neolithic farmers?
High stress indicates potential famine ## Footnote This response encourages eating more in preparation for food scarcity.
88
What is a consequence of modern lifestyles regarding energy metabolism?
Evolutionary mismatch ## Footnote Our metabolism is not well adapted to current diets and lifestyle.
89
What are some causes of obesity related to early life?
Breastfeeding and C-section ## Footnote These factors can impact weight regulation from a young age.
90
What early life conditions contribute to obesity?
Abnormal weight and fetal malnutrition ## Footnote These can predispose individuals to obesity later in life.
91
How many potential treatments for obesity exist?
Numerous ## Footnote The complexity of obesity means there are various approaches to treatment.

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