health Flashcards
(219 cards)
1
Q
What is addiction?
A
Addiction is when someone feels they cannot stop taking a drug, prioritizes its use over health, work, and relationships, and has extreme difficulty stopping despite consequences.
2
Q
What is physical dependence?
A
Physical dependence happens when drugs change how neurotransmitters work in the brain, leading to tolerance. Withdrawal occurs when abstaining from the drug, causing unpleasant physical effects.
3
Q
What is tolerance?
A
Tolerance occurs when the body adapts to a drug, requiring more of it over time to achieve the same effects. It results from changes in neuron receptors (up-regulation or down-regulation).
4
Q
What is up-regulation and down-regulation?
A
Up-regulation increases neuron receptors for drug molecules, while down-regulation decreases them.
5
Q
What is withdrawal?
A
Withdrawal occurs when someone stops taking a drug, leading to unpleasant symptoms like shaking, headaches, vomiting, or fits. Severity depends on drug type, frequency, and duration of use.
6
Q
What is psychological dependency?
A
Psychological dependency is the compulsion to experience a drug’s effects, believing it’s essential for coping. It involves positive reinforcement (euphoria) and negative reinforcement (removing discomfort like anxiety or pain).
7
Q
What biological explanation is linked to alcohol addiction?
A
The DRD2 gene, which codes for the number of D2 dopamine receptors and influences dopamine neurotransmission, is linked to alcohol addiction.
8
Q
How does alcohol affect dopamine pathways?
A
Drinking alcohol increases dopamine transmission along the mesolimbic and mesocortical pathways, causing feelings of pleasure and reinforcing alcohol-seeking behavior.
9
Q
How might Anita’s family history contribute to her addiction?
A
Anita may have inherited the A1 variant of the DRD2 gene from her parents, resulting in fewer D2 dopamine receptors. This genetic trait might partly explain her addiction.
10
Q
Why does Anita feel good after drinking?
A
The increase in dopamine in her brain’s reward pathways when drinking alcohol explains why she feels good.
11
Q
What evidence supports the link between the DRD2 gene and alcohol addiction?
A
Connor et al. (2002) found individuals with the A1 variant of the DRD2 gene consumed more alcohol and experienced earlier alcohol-related problems.
12
Q
What are the limitations of Connor et al.’s study?
A
The study used self-report methods, which may have resulted in inaccurate estimates of alcohol consumption and socially desirable responses, reducing validity.
13
Q
What alternative evidence suggests social factors in alcohol addiction?
A
Mundt (2012) found peer influence plays a significant role in adolescent alcohol consumption, highlighting the importance of social factors in addiction.
14
Q
What is a strength of the DRD2 genetic explanation?
A
Blood tests provide objective, empirical data on the A1 variant of the DRD2 gene, allowing statistical comparisons and adding credibility to the explanation.
15
Q
What is a weakness of reducing addiction to the DRD2 gene?
A
Focusing solely on the gene simplifies the complex behavior of addiction, making it reductionist.
16
Q
hat model better explains Anita’s addiction?
A
The diathesis-stress model, which combines genetic predisposition (like the DRD2 gene) with environmental stressors, provides a more comprehensive explanation.
17
Q
How do neurotransmitters play a role in Anita’s continued addiction?
A
Downregulation of dopamine receptors due to alcohol consumption explains why Anita needs more alcohol to feel the same effects.
18
Q
What evidence supports a genetic basis for addiction treatment?
A
Noble (1996) found dopamine agonists reduce alcohol consumption in individuals with the A1 variant of the DRD2 gene.
19
Q
Why can’t the DRD2 gene fully explain Anita’s addiction?
A
It doesn’t account for her tolerance or why she started drinking initially; social and environmental factors are also important.
20
Q
What does Social Learning Theory (SLT) suggest about alcohol addiction?
A
SLT suggests that alcohol addiction can be learned through observation and imitation of role models.
21
Q
What increases the likelihood of identifying with a role model?
A
People are more likely to identify with role models of the same sex, similar age, or higher status, such as a popular peer.
22
Q
What study supports SLT as an explanation for addiction?
A
Bandura (1961) showed children imitated aggressive acts and were more likely to imitate same-sex role models.
23
Q
What limitation exists in applying Bandura’s study to alcohol addiction?
A
The study used children aged 4, whereas drinking behavior typically starts in adolescence or adulthood.
24
Q
How does SLT explain observing and reproducing drinking behavior?
A
Attention is given to a role model’s drinking, the behavior is retained, and motivation to reproduce it comes from vicarious reinforcement, like seeing the role model being praised.
25
What types of reinforcement contribute to continued drinking?
Intrinsic reinforcement (e.g., feeling relaxed) and extrinsic reinforcement (e.g., social praise).
26
What is one strength of SLT?
it incorporates elements from multiple approaches, including cognitive, behavioral, and social factors, making it a holistic explanation.
27
How has SLT been applied in real-life health campaigns?
Campaigns like Drinkaware educate about the dangers of imitating drinking behaviors observed in role models.
28
Why is SLT considered reductionist?
It focuses only on nurture and fails to account for genetic predispositions.
29
What other model complements SLT in explaining addiction?
The diathesis-stress model combines genetic predispositions with environmental stressors.
30
Why can SLT not fully explain continued drinking?
It doesn’t account for physical dependency, which biological explanations (e.g., increased dopamine transmission) address.
31
What does Social Learning Theory (SLT) suggest about alcohol addiction?
SLT suggests that alcohol addiction can be learned through observation and imitation of role models.
31
What increases the likelihood of identifying with a role model?
People are more likely to identify with role models of the same sex, similar age, or higher status, such as a popular peer.
32
What study supports SLT as an explanation for addiction?
Bandura (1961) showed children imitated aggressive acts and were more likely to imitate same-sex role models.
33
What limitation exists in applying Bandura’s study to alcohol addiction?
The study used children aged 4, whereas drinking behavior typically starts in adolescence or adulthood.
34
How does SLT explain observing and reproducing drinking behavior?
Attention is given to a role model's drinking, the behavior is retained, and motivation to reproduce it comes from vicarious reinforcement, like seeing the role model being praised.
35
What types of reinforcement contribute to continued drinking?
Intrinsic reinforcement (e.g., feeling relaxed) and extrinsic reinforcement (e.g., social praise).
36
What is one strength of SLT?
It incorporates elements from multiple approaches, including cognitive, behavioral, and social factors, making it a holistic explanation.
37
How has SLT been applied in real-life health campaigns?
Campaigns like Drinkaware educate about the dangers of imitating drinking behaviors observed in role models.
38
Why is SLT considered reductionist?
It focuses only on nurture and fails to account for genetic predispositions.
39
What other model complements SLT in explaining addiction?
The diathesis-stress model combines genetic predispositions with environmental stressors.
40
Why can SLT not fully explain continued drinking?
It doesn’t account for physical dependency, which biological explanations (e.g., increased dopamine transmission) address.
41
What is psychotherapy in the context of alcohol addiction?
Psychotherapy is a talking therapy that uses approaches like psychoanalysis or interpersonal therapy. It addresses underlying causes of addiction, such as unresolved trauma, and focuses on defense mechanisms like denial and rationalization.
42
What is the main goal of psychotherapy for alcohol addiction?
Its aim is to uncover unconscious thoughts and resolve issues contributing to addiction, providing long-term relief.
43
What evidence supports the effectiveness of psychotherapy?
Smith (1982) conducted a meta-analysis of 375 studies, showing psychotherapy improved well-being for 75% of treated individuals.
44
Why is the meta-analysis by Smith (1982) significant?
It enhances reliability due to its large sample size and demonstrates the effectiveness of psychotherapy.
45
What makes psychotherapy a curative approach?
It addresses the root causes of addiction, focusing on long-term solutions rather than just physical dependency.
46
How does psychotherapy's eclectic nature benefit treatment?
Combining techniques like improved communication and thought-challenging creates a personalized, versatile approach.
47
Why does psychotherapy avoid the disadvantages of drug-based treatments?
It does not produce physical side effects, making it suitable for those unable to tolerate medication.
48
What is a challenge of psychotherapy for alcoholics?
It does not treat withdrawal symptoms directly, making it difficult for those who continue drinking during therapy.
49
Why might psychotherapy have higher dropout rates?
The lack of immediate physical benefits and the emotional demands of therapy can lead to relapse or disengagement.
50
How does cost impact the accessibility of psychotherapy?
It’s often more expensive and less available on the NHS, excluding individuals unable to afford private treatment.
51
How can psychotherapy be combined for better results?
Combining it with physical treatments like aversion therapy addresses both psychological and physical aspects of addiction.
52
Why does psychotherapy offer lower social control?
The patient controls what issues to share, reducing external pressure and fostering a cooperative relationship with the therapist.
53
Why might psychotherapy’s therapeutic setting be crucial?
A safe, trusting environment encourages patients to open up about past traumas.
54
What was the aim of Mundt et al. (2012)?
To investigate whether adolescents select friends with similar alcohol use (selection explanation) or adjust their consumption to match their friends' levels (influence explanation).
55
What was the study's sample and method?
Data was collected from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (1995-1996), with 2,563 American adolescents aged 13-18 from representative schools. They completed surveys in Wave 1 and Wave 2.
56
What did the results show about alcohol use?
Alcohol use reported as ‘non’ increased from 49.6% to 54.0%, and those drinking weekly or more often rose from 9.6% to 10.9%. Friendship selection was linked to similarity in alcohol consumption.
57
What are the strengths of Mundt et al.'s study?
Large sample size using stratified sampling, making findings generalisable to the wider American population.
Standardised questionnaires allowed replication and enhanced reliability.
58
How did the study gather objective data?
It used Likert Scales for alcohol consumption, leading to quantitative data collection that increased validity.
59
What are the weaknesses of Mundt et al.’s study?
Findings are ethnocentric as the sample was exclusively American, limiting generalisability to other cultures.
Reliance on self-report measures may lead to socially desirable answers, reducing validity.
60
How can the findings be applied to interventions?
They suggest that interventions for teenagers should educate on selecting friends and possibly involve friends in programs targeting excessive drinking.
61
Why are the study’s conclusions considered reductionist?
They oversimplify underage drinking by focusing solely on friendship selection, ignoring factors like mental health, brain function, and personality traits.
62
What does the DRD2 gene code for?
The DRD2 gene codes for the number of D2 dopamine receptors in the brain's reward pathways, affecting dopamine transmission.
63
How does nicotine interact with the brain?
Nicotine binds to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (NAChRs) on neurons, stimulating the release of dopamine.
64
Why is the A1 variant of the DRD2 gene significant?
Individuals with the A1 variant have fewer D2 receptors, making them more likely to develop substance addictions, including nicotine.
65
What study supports the link between the A1 variant and smoking?
Noble (1994b) found that 48% of smokers had the A1 variant compared to 25% of non-smokers, suggesting it is an important factor in addiction.
66
What are the limitations of Noble’s findings?
The A1 variant was also present in 25% of non-smokers, indicating it may only predispose individuals but cannot fully explain addiction.
67
What refuting evidence exists for the DRD2 explanation?
Singleton et al. (1998) found no association between the A1 variant and smoking in the UK population.
68
What alternative explanation could account for Chrissie’s addiction?
Negative reinforcement—Chrissie may smoke to avoid feelings of anxiety, which the DRD2 explanation cannot fully address.
69
How does the DRD2 explanation provide objective evidence?
Blood tests can determine the presence of the A1 variant, offering objective and replicable data.
70
How are findings from the DRD2 explanation scientifically credible?
Standardized genetic tests increase reliability and credibility when applied to addiction research.
71
Why is the DRD2 explanation reductionist?
It simplifies addiction to a genetic cause, ignoring factors like stress, environment, and social influences.
72
How can the DRD2 explanation be applied to treatment?
Dopamine agonists could be prescribed to individuals with the A1 variant to reduce addiction and improve public health.
73
Why is the DRD2 explanation incomplete?
It accounts for Chrissie’s genetic predisposition but cannot fully explain her nicotine addiction or why she smokes instead of using other substances.
74
What is aversion therapy (AT)?
AT is a behavioral approach based on classical conditioning. Rapid smoking, a type of AT, replaces the association between smoking and pleasurable feelings with repulsive consequences like nausea.
75
How should Mrs Smythe implement rapid smoking therapy?
She should select patients, gain full consent, and track their progress over six months. Patients should be encouraged to join support groups and sessions should be supervised
76
What could Mrs Smythe do alongside rapid smoking therapy?
She could offer counselling or CBT to help patients address smoking triggers like stress, context cues, and unhealthy thought patterns.
77
What makes rapid smoking therapy accessible?
It is available at doctor's surgeries, free on the NHS, and doesn’t require specialized skills, making patients more likely to engage.
78
What evidence supports rapid smoking therapy?
Danaher (1977) found rapid smoking effective in certain demographics, such as non-married couples, showing its potential in specific groups.
79
What is a limitation of rapid smoking therapy?
Danaher’s research found it ineffective for some groups, meaning it cannot be generalized to all smokers.
80
Why might rapid smoking not address the root causes of smoking?
It focuses on the smoking behavior but does not tackle underlying issues like stress or anxiety, leading to possible relapse.
81
What alternatives might Mrs Smythe consider for her patients?
Nicotine Replacement Therapy (NRT), as shown by Zhang (2015), and counselling for more holistic care.
82
What is covert sensitization and why is it considered ethical?
It is a development from rapid smoking therapy where patients imagine feeling nauseous, avoiding physical discomfort while still forming aversive associations.
83
Why might rapid smoking therapy be considered less ethical?
It involves a degree of social control, requiring patients to continue smoking past nausea. This may be problematic for vulnerable individuals.
84
How can a holistic approach improve treatment outcomes?
Combining rapid smoking with counselling or CBT addresses both physical and psychological aspects of smoking addiction.
85
What is the conclusion regarding aversion therapy?
It is a quick, accessible treatment for addressing smoking behaviors. However, considering its ethical concerns, Mrs Smythe might also explore covert sensitization or NRT for vulnerable patients.
86
What is nicotine replacement therapy (NRT)?
What is nicotine replacement therapy (NRT)? A: NRT provides nicotine without cigarettes, through patches, chewing gum, sprays, and lozenges. Nicotine binds to brain receptors, mimicking the effect of smoking.
87
How long does NRT need to be used to be effective?
NRT must be used for at least 8-12 weeks.
88
What evidence supports NRT as an effective treatment for nicotine addiction?
Zhang (2015) found that NRT helped smokers quit if used for the recommended 8-12 weeks
89
Why is NRT considered widely accessible?
It is free on the NHS and offers various options (e.g., patches, sprays) to suit patients' preferences.
90
What is a key limitation of NRT?
It addresses physical cravings but not underlying causes of addiction, such as using smoking as a stress coping mechanism.
91
Why might NRT not be the best option for all individuals?
Alternative treatments, like rapid smoking, may work better for certain groups, such as non-married couples (Danaher, 1977).
92
How does NRT manage withdrawal symptoms?
It gradually reduces nicotine intake, allowing the body time to downregulate nicotine receptors and minimize cravings and irritability.
93
What contextual cues does NRT help manage?
It addresses triggers like mealtimes that lead to smoking.
94
How can NRT be used as part of a holistic treatment?
NRT can be combined with counselling or CBT to address both physical and psychological dependency, improving long-term success.
95
What ethical concern is associated with NRT?
It may involve social control, where patients feel pressured to quit smoking to conform to societal norms.
96
Why is NRT considered credible?
It is evidence-based and widely accessible through the NHS.
97
What is the conclusion regarding NRT's effectiveness?
NRT is an effective and accessible treatment for nicotine addiction but may not address the psychological or situational causes of smoking.
98
What are the key elements of the Hovland-Yale Model?
The model includes three elements: source, message, and audience.
99
What makes a source credible in the Hovland-Yale Model?
A credible source has expertise, is trustworthy, and is someone the audience is likely to listen to.
100
How does identification enhance the effectiveness of the source?
role models that the audience can relate to or admire are more likely to influence behavior through identification.
101
Why are social media celebrities effective role models for teenagers?
Teenagers often admire and relate to social media celebrities, making them more likely to engage with the message.
102
What should the message include according to the Hovland-Yale Model?
The message should discuss both the pros (e.g., euphoria) and cons (e.g., depression) of drug use and come to a solid conclusion.
103
How should the message be tailored for the audience?
It should be relatable to the audience and delivered in a way they understand.
104
How did George make the message relatable for teenagers?
The message included relatable issues such as peer pressure and academic performance and was conveyed using social media in teenager-friendly language.
105
What specific content did the celebrity address in the message?
The celebrity discussed both the highs and lows of drug use, acknowledging reasons teens might try drugs and their negative consequences.
106
What is fear arousal in psychological strategies?
It involves evoking fear through emotive images and statistics to encourage behavior change.
107
It involves evoking fear through emotive images and statistics to encourage behavior change.
Graphic images of bodily harm caused by drugs, statistics about health effects, and the impact of drug use on loved ones.
108
What model is used to structure anti-drugs campaigns?
The Hovland-Yale Model, which includes source, message, and audience.
109
What makes a source effective in the Hovland-Yale Model?
A credible source has expertise and relatability, often being a role model the audience identifies with.
110
What is Stoptober?
An anti-smoking campaign introduced by Public Health England in 2012, running annually in October to encourage smokers to abstain for 28 days, making them five times more likely to quit for good.
111
What role do celebrities play in Stoptober?
Celebrities like Al Murray and Paddy McGuinness deliver messages to motivate participants.
112
How does Stoptober tailor its message?
Through a two-sided argument, discussing both pros and cons of smoking before concluding it’s better to quit.
113
How does Stoptober use audience relatability?
It employs humour, positive messages, and a community feel to engage its audience.
114
What multi-media approaches does Stoptober use?
Adverts, social media, apps, support packs, and emails are used to help participants stop smoking.
115
How does Bandura’s (1961) research support the effectiveness of Stoptober?
It shows role models influence behaviour, meaning celebrity role models in Stoptober may help smokers quit.
116
What evidence supports graphic warnings for behaviour change?
Hammond et al. (2003) found graphic cigarette warnings were more effective than written ones at reducing smoking.
117
What is a limitation of Bandura’s research for anti-drugs campaigns?
It studied children’s imitation of aggression, so findings may not generalize to smoking behaviour in adults.
118
Why might celebrity endorsements be ineffective?
Hume (1992) found celebrity endorsements don’t always increase persuasion and may distract from key messages.
119
What is a concern about fear arousal?
High fear arousal may not always lead to behavioural change; moderate fear often has the most impact.
120
What are the strengths of Stoptober?
It uses social control positively through persuasion and role models, creating a community feel that supports quitting.
121
What are the weaknesses of Stoptober’s methods?
Subtle manipulation through social control may pressure participants to conform, leading to shame and potentially ineffective quitting strategies.
122
What should campaigns like Stoptober consider to improve effectiveness?
A holistic approach, combining counselling and social support, addresses nicotine addiction and underlying causes like stress or mental health.
123
What are the limitations of anti-drugs campaigns in general?
They don’t tackle broader issues like unemployment or mental health, which often contribute to addiction.
124
Why are psychological strategies important in anti-drugs campaigns?
They effectively change behaviours using techniques like role models and social support, although long-term success may require a more holistic approach.
125
Why is encouraging smoking cessation important?
Smoking causes over 70% of lung cancers and is linked to diabetes, heart disease, and stroke. The NHS spends £2.4 billion annually treating smoking-related illnesses.
126
What influences smoking behavior?
Smokers associate positives like relaxation with smoking, so interventions focus on creating stronger negative associations.
127
How does aversion therapy work to stop smoking?
It pairs smoking with unpleasant stimuli, such as nausea from rapid smoking, encouraging negative associations with cigarettes.
128
What evidence supports aversion therapy?
Danaher (1977) found rapid smoking effective for non-married couples, highlighting its potential in certain demographics.
129
Why might aversion therapy not work for everyone?
It may be less effective for groups like married couples; treatments addressing root causes, like CBT, could be more curative.
130
What is nicotine replacement therapy (NRT)?
NRT provides nicotine through gum, patches, sprays, or lozenges to manage withdrawal symptoms and gradually reduce smoking.
131
What evidence supports NRT’s effectiveness?
Zhang (2015) found NRT effective when used for 8-12 weeks in a longitudinal study of smokers.
132
Why is NRT considered limited?
It only addresses physical addiction, not the root psychological causes. Combining it with CBT or counselling is recommended for lasting cessation.
133
Why is addressing second-hand smoke important?
Second-hand smoke is as harmful as direct smoking and increases risks like childhood asthma.
134
What environmental issues are linked to smoking?
Smoking contributes to litter and deforestation due to tobacco farming.
135
What is Stoptober, and how does it encourage smoking cessation?
Stoptober is an anti-smoking campaign using social media, apps, and celebrity role models like Al Murray to engage smokers. It employs the Hovland-Yale model to highlight the pros and cons of smoking.
136
What is a strength of Stoptober?
It offers withdrawal symptom management, social support, and helps smokers evaluate their habits, making it accessible and effective.
137
What are the weaknesses of celebrity endorsements in campaigns?
Hume (1992) found that celebrities can overshadow the campaign’s message, reducing the effectiveness of persuasion.
138
What holistic approach is recommended for permanent smoking cessation?
Health psychology should address both physical and psychological dependencies, combining treatments like NRT, CBT, and counseling.
139
What is a biological explanation for heroin addiction?
The A1 variant of the DRD2 gene is one explanation. It leads to fewer D2 dopamine receptors, reducing the ability to experience reward and pleasure, prompting behaviors like heroin use to compensate.
140
How does heroin affect the brain's reward system?
Heroin is hydrolysed into morphine, which binds to opioid receptors on GABA neurons in the VTA, increasing dopamine transmission in the mesocortical and mesolimbic pathways and creating feelings of pleasure.
141
What evidence supports the role of the A1 variant of the DRD2 gene in heroin addiction?
Vereczkei (2013) found that the A1 variant was overexpressed in Hungarian heroin addicts compared to controls, highlighting its potential role in addiction.
142
What are the limitations of Vereczkei's (2013) research?
The study's findings may not be generalizable to heroin addicts in other cultures, as all participants were Hungarian, making the results ethnocentric.
143
What alternative explanation challenges the DRD2 gene's role in heroin addiction?
Social learning theory suggests that addiction may result from observing and imitating role models, as seen in peer influences on smoking initiation studied by Friedman et al. (1985).
144
What is a strength of the genetic explanation for heroin addiction?
The use of objective measures, like saliva and blood tests, to identify the A1 variant increases the credibility of this explanation.
145
What is a weakness of the genetic explanation for heroin addiction?
25% of the population has the A1 variant, yet not all are addicted to heroin, suggesting environmental factors also play a role. An interactionist approach may provide a more holistic understanding.
146
How might screening for the A1 variant help prevent heroin addiction?
Identifying at-risk individuals could allow for early intervention, such as prescribing dopamine agonists to prevent reliance on heroin.
147
What are the reductionist and holistic perspectives on the DRD2 explanation?
The reductionist approach simplifies heroin addiction to the A1 variant, aiding study and treatment development. However, it overlooks complex factors like social influences and mental illness.
148
What is a concluding evaluation of the DRD2 explanation for heroin addiction?
While it explains a predisposition to addiction, it cannot fully account for why someone uses heroin specifically. Social and environmental factors also contribute.
149
What does Social Learning Theory (SLT) suggest about heroin addiction?
SLT suggests addicts may observe and imitate role models with a heroin addiction, especially if the role models are same-sex, higher status, or relevant (e.g., parents or peers).
150
How does SLT explain Mark’s patients' heroin use?
Mark’s patients reported starting heroin due to knowing someone who used it, such as an older sibling, parent, or friend. These individuals may have acted as role models.
151
What evidence supports SLT's role in heroin addiction?
Bandura (1961) found children imitated same-sex role models and were more likely to replicate aggressive acts when observing role models, which may parallel drug-use imitation.
152
What is a limitation of Bandura’s research for explaining heroin addiction?
Bandura studied aggression in children (mean age 4), which may not generalize to heroin use in teens or adults due to differences in age and context.
153
What are the four stages of social learning?
Attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation.
154
How might the retention stage explain heroin use?
Retention involves storing memories of heroin use, such as observing friends preparing syringes, which can later be reproduced.
155
What evidence supports retention in drug-use imitation?
Jackson (1997) found peer modeling and perceived drug misuse were strongly associated with the initiation and experimentation of alcohol and tobacco use among teens.
156
What is a limitation of Jackson's research for explaining heroin addiction?
Jackson did not investigate heroin directly, so assumptions about drug initiation processes may vary for heroin.
157
How does SLT's focus on nurture ignore nature in heroin addiction?
SLT overlooks genetic explanations, such as Vereczkei (2013), who identified the A1 variant of the DRD2 gene as overexpressed in Hungarian heroin addicts.
158
What is the reproduction stage in SLT?
Reproduction involves trying heroin when the opportunity arises, such as at a party. Vicarious reinforcement, like observing euphoria, motivates heroin use.
159
How does intrinsic motivation influence heroin use?
Intrinsic motivation includes euphoria or pain relief from heroin, which reinforces continued use.
160
What evidence supports vicarious reinforcement in heroin use?
Bandura (1965) found observing positive outcomes (e.g., reward) from a model’s behavior increased imitation compared to observing punishment.
161
What are the limitations of vicarious reinforcement for explaining heroin addiction?
Punishments for heroin use are long-term (e.g., loss of social drive), which Bandura’s study may not generalize well to addiction contexts.
162
What is an alternative explanation for heroin addiction?
Neurotransmitter-based explanations, such as the role of context cues, better explain overdoses observed in unfamiliar places.
163
What is a holistic approach to explaining heroin addiction?
An interactionist perspective that combines social (nurture) factors like SLT with biological (nature) factors provides a more comprehensive explanation.
164
What is aversion therapy (AT) for heroin addiction based on?
Aversion therapy is rooted in classical conditioning. Apomorphine (UCS) triggers nausea/vomiting (UCR). Heroin (NS) is paired with apomorphine until heroin alone causes nausea/vomiting, encouraging avoidance.
165
What evidence supports aversion therapy for heroin addiction?
Beil and Trojan (1977) treated addicts with apomorphine. Results showed 65% were drug-free for six months, demonstrating its potential as a long-term treatment.
166
What is a limitation of apomorphine’s effectiveness for heroin addiction?
Beil and Trojan found apomorphine more effective for alcohol addiction than heroin. This indicates varying success rates depending on the substance.
167
How does methadone compare to apomorphine for treating heroin addiction?
Amato (2005) found high doses of methadone more effective than apomorphine, highlighting methadone as a viable alternative treatment.
168
What are the practical aspects of aversion therapy?
AT is conducted in residential settings over weeks. Apomorphine induces nausea, overpowering heroin’s euphoric effects. Side effects include hallucinations and sudden sleep onset.
169
Why might addicts drop out of aversion therapy?
The severe side effects, like hallucinations, increase the chance of treatment dropout, limiting its effectiveness for heroin addiction.
170
How does counseling enhance aversion therapy?
Counseling helps addicts address reasons for heroin use and develop coping strategies, increasing the likelihood of long-term success when combined with AT.
171
What is a holistic approach to treating heroin addiction?
Combining AT with counseling addresses both physical addiction and psychological causes, reducing relapse rates and improving overall effectiveness.
172
What ethical alternative exists to aversion therapy?
Covert sensitization involves imagining nausea while using heroin, offering a more ethical treatment option for heroin addiction.
173
What is methadone, and how does it work?
Methadone is a synthetic opiate used as a replacement for heroin. It binds to opioid receptors and stays in the body longer than heroin (approx. 24 hours). It controls withdrawal symptoms without leading to the same 'high.'
174
What supporting evidence highlights methadone's effectiveness?
Amato (2005) reviewed meta-analyses of 52 studies and found high doses of methadone more effective than low doses, no treatment, and alternative therapies. Meta-analysis enhances reliability of results.
175
What refuting evidence challenges methadone's effectiveness?
Beil and Trojan (1977) found apomorphine had a higher success rate for long-term drug-free outcomes (41%) than methadone. However, apomorphine was more effective for alcohol addiction than heroin.
176
What is the process for starting methadone treatment?
Low doses are initially prescribed and gradually increased. Addicts drink methadone at pharmacies under supervision until trusted to take it at home. Treatment can include counseling or CBT.
177
What are limitations of methadone treatment alone?
Methadone treats physical dependency but ignores psychological causes like trauma or abuse, leaving addicts vulnerable to relapse in the same social circles.
178
How can methadone be used holistically?
Methadone can be combined with talking therapies to address psychological dependency, reduce relapse rates, and stabilize drug dependence, making therapy more effective.
179
What are the side effects of methadone, and how is detoxification managed?
Side effects include dizziness, digestive issues, and dry mouth. Detoxification involves gradually reducing methadone dosage while minimizing withdrawal symptoms like anxiety.
180
How does Katrina monitor methadone treatment?
Katrina conducts medical checks every three months to assess stability and uses urine samples to ensure no illegal drug use. Methadone doses are adjusted as needed.
181
What are ethical advantages of methadone over aversion therapy?
Methadone treatment is slow and gradual, tailored to individual needs, unlike aversion therapy which induces nausea. This makes methadone a more ethical treatment option.
182
What is a weakness of methadone treatment for heroin addicts
Some addicts may become reliant on methadone, struggling to wean off due to withdrawal symptoms like anxiety and depression, limiting its effectiveness as a standalone treatment.
183
Why is methadone safer than heroin?
Methadone avoids the risks associated with injecting heroin, such as HIV and blood clots, making it a safer option.
184
What was the aim of Olds and Milner's (1954) study?
To determine whether electrical stimulation had a reinforcing effect on rats’ brains.
185
How did Olds and Milner carry out the experiment?
Fifteen male hooded rats had electrodes implanted to stimulate specific brain regions (e.g., the septal area) when they pressed a lever in a Skinner box.
186
What strength supports the study's internal validity?
The controlled environment limited extraneous variables, as rats lacked food/water in the Skinner box and were of the same breed.
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What is a competing argument against the study's ethics?
Physical harm was caused by electrode implantation and lack of food, though harm was minimized by using only 15 rats.
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How were the rats tested during the study?
Rats underwent 2–4 days of testing with several 3-hour acquisition periods (lever presses stimulated the brain) and 30-minute extinction periods (lever presses had no effect).
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What did the results reveal about the septal area?
Rats pressed the lever the most when the septal area was stimulated (75–92% of the time), with one rat pressing it 7,500 times.
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What conclusion did the study reach about the reward center in the brain?
The septal area, mammillothalamic tract, and cingulate cortex were linked to reward, while the medial geniculate and medial lemniscus were associated with punishment.
191
How did the standardised procedure enhance reliability?
Uniform testing conditions (e.g., acquisition and extinction periods) allowed replication to check consistency of findings.
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What reduced reliability in the study?
Only one rat had electrodes implanted in some brain regions (e.g., mammillothalamic tract), so consistency was not thoroughly checked.
193
What are the practical applications of the study’s findings?
Advancing understanding of drug addiction in humans and explaining why people persist with drugs despite negative consequences.
194
What does cross-cultural research investigate?
It gathers detailed data to study similarities and differences in behaviors, thoughts, and attitudes regarding drug use across different cultures.
194
How did James' findings highlight cultural differences in attitudes towards drug use?
James found that his own culture had the most negative attitude towards drug use compared to other cultures.
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Why does cross-cultural research include participants from various cultures?
To gain a more holistic understanding of attitudes towards drug use rather than focusing on participants from the same culture.
196
How did James ensure diversity in his sample?
He used participants from his own ethnic group, another ethnic group within his country, and an ethnic group from a neighboring Western country.
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What does WEIRD stand for, and how does cross-cultural research aim to address it?
WEIRD stands for Western, Educated, Industrialised, Rich, Democratic samples. Cross-cultural research strives to include broader cultural perspectives to reduce ethnocentric bias.
198
What methods can cross-cultural research use to investigate attitudes towards drug use?
Experiments, interviews, and questionnaires.
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What research methods did James use for his study?
Questionnaires with open questions and Likert scales for statistical analysis and interviews to allow participants to expand on their views.
200
Why do questionnaires and interviews increase validity in cross-cultural research?
They provide statistical comparisons and gain deeper insight into attitudes, enhancing the reliability of the findings.
201
What does Social Learning Theory (SLT) suggest about alcohol addiction?
SLT states that people observe and imitate behaviors, such as drinking alcohol. They pay attention to a role model’s drinking behavior, retain it in their memory, and reproduce it later when they have the means and capacity to do so.
202
How does SLT explain Peter's alcohol addiction?
Peter’s mother drinks alcohol regularly, making her a role model for Peter to imitate. His friends may also provide access to alcohol, enabling him to reproduce the behavior.
203
What role does vicarious reinforcement play in alcohol addiction
Behaviors like drinking alcohol can be reinforced vicariously by observing others being rewarded, such as friends receiving praise or social acceptance for drinking.
204
What is negative reinforcement in the context of alcohol addiction?
Negative reinforcement occurs when drinking alcohol removes an unpleasant feeling, such as social awkwardness.
205
What was the aim of the practical investigation?
To examine differences in attitudes towards smoking between the younger generation (14–18 years) and the older generation (60+ years).
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What sampling method was used in the practical investigation?
Opportunity sampling, where students selected one person in either the younger or older age bracket who was available at the time.
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What is a strength of using opportunity sampling?
It is quick and convenient, saving time and money by selecting people readily available, such as students and their peers.
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What is a weakness of using opportunity sampling?
Participants are likely to be friends or family, which may lead to biased opinions and reduce the generalisability of findings to the target population.
209
What type of questionnaire was used in the investigation?
A 10-item questionnaire with a 7-point Likert scale, ranging from "strongly agree" to "strongly disagree," along with one open question.
210
What statistical test was used to analyze the data?
A Mann-Whitney U-test.
211
What did the results show regarding differences in smoking attitudes?
There was no significant difference in attitudes towards smoking between the younger and older generations.
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What reasons did the younger and older generations provide for why smoking cannot be completely banned?
The younger generation cited black market development, while the older generation pointed to freedom of choice and political impacts.
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What is a strength of using a standardised questionnaire?
It ensures reliability by allowing researchers to replicate the study consistently over time.
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What is a weakness of using a questionnaire?
Participants may provide socially desirable answers to appear favorable, potentially hiding their true attitudes.
215
What ethical considerations were included in the investigation?
Participants were given standardised instructions, informed consent, debriefing, and the option to withdraw their data.
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What is a limitation of the open question used in the study?
Researchers may interpret responses based on personal opinion, reducing the validity of the conclusions.
217
What conclusion was reached in the investigation?
Attitudes towards smoking did not differ significantly between generations, but their reasoning for smoking's non-banishment varied.
