Health and Disease Final

Question 1

Zoonosis

Answer 1

Diseases that are transmissible between animals and humans. These became more prominent during the agricultural revolution around 500 BCE when animals and humans started living in closer quarters. A large portion of disease that have shaped human history are zoonotic in origin (malaria, tuberculosis, influenza).

Question 2

William McNeill

Answer 2

Historian from around 1976 who frames diseases as biological forces that have largely shaped human history. Highlights that biological factors associated with disease are devastating in their scope and have a much larger influence than other factors associated with disease.

Question 3

Biohistory

Answer 3

Classic accounts of epidemic diseases that frame diseases as biological forces that have a large role in shaping human history. Can be summarized by William McNeill in Plagues and Peoples written in 1976 where he highlights that the biological factors associated with disease are devastating in their scope and have shaped much of history in a way that historians have downplayed. Can be contrasted to cultural approaches of framing disease by Charles Rosenburg.

Question 4

Charles Rosenberg

Answer 4

Historian from around 1992 who frames disease as not only a biological event but also more generally as complex social events with both biological and non-biological components. Some non-biological components are constructs, aspects of social identity, a structuring element of society/social responses/relationships between doctors and patients. Also talks about leprosy as an example of disease playing an aspect in social role and identity.

Question 5

Hippocrates (460-377 BCE)

Answer 5

An Ancient Greek medical doctor who has been revered as the ideal physician and is commonly credited for writing the texts within the Hippocratic Corpus compiled between 420 and 350 BCE. He drew from empirical approaches to healing in his writing and practice which emphasized the concept of disease as a natural rather than supernatural event and the use of medical practice to promote healing by balancing forces within the body. Given the wide-ranging influence of the Hippocratic Corpus, he is commonly credited as the Father of Medicine.

Question 6

Hippocratic Corpus

Answer 6

A collection of around 60 medical works written and assembled between 420 and 350 BCE. These works included case histories, medical protocols, explanations of different diseases, and more. Several theories of disease were additionally propagated in the Hippocratic Corpus such as the idea that disease is as a natural event, a microcosm for the larger environment, a matter of balance and imbalance between humors, that disease can be alleviated by medical treatments, and more. The Hippocratic-Corpus was foundational to the European understanding of medicine and has undergone various translations, interpretations, and revisions over time across Europe, Asia, and Africa which speaks to its large-scale influence.

Question 7

Medical pluralism

Answer 7

A phenomenon where several medical models and practices coexist at a given period in time. Greece in the 5th century BCE had a medical marketplace which drove innovation as different models competed with one another, sacred vs empirical healing and Hippocratics developed from empirical.

Question 8

Rationalists vs. Empirics

Answer 8

A split that occurred within the Hippocratic tradition as Greek medicine spread between 300 and 30 BCE and commentators criticized, expanded, and altered the Hippocratic Corpus. Empirics believed medical treatments are valid if they have a demonstrated efficacy regardless of cause while rationalists believed doctors should try to explain the world around them and how that’s linked with underlying causes of disease rather than solely determine a treatment. The split highlights the wide-ranging influence of the Hippocratics and the several sects and approaches to treatment that emerged from it.

Question 9

Hippocratic-Galenic Medical Tradition

Answer 9

A school of thought in medicine that emerged between 200 and 31 BCE and emphasized the holistic management of disease through the balancing of the four humors and six non-naturals within the body. The tradition emerged as the Roman Empire conquered Greece and Galen, a Roman physician, translated, praised, and transmitted the Hippocratic Corpus throughout the region. This tradition emphasizes how foundational the Hippocratic Corpus was to Western medicine and serves as a case for how the rediscovery and redevelopment of the Corpus evolved the practice of Western medicine over time.

Question 10

Galen (130-200 CE)

Answer 10

Roman physician who rediscovered and propogated the Hippocratics as the Roman empire conquered Greece and developed the Hippocratic-Galenic medical tradition which was really influential. Also believed that “the best doctor is a philosopher” where he wished to elevate the practice of medicine to philosophy at the time and believed medicine should be rationalist and explanatory. Also imposed his own interpretations on the Hippocrates and produced works of his own in response where he believed doctors should do more aggressive interventions such as surgeries.

Question 11

The 4 humors

Answer 11

Blood (air), yellow bile (fire), black bile (earth), and phlegm (water), four humors made up the humoral system of medicine which was part of the Hippocratic-Galenic medical tradition, and it was believed the key to managing disease was balancing these humors.

Question 12

the six non-naturals

Answer 12

These included air, sleep/waking, food/drink, rest/exercise, evacuation/retention, passions/emotions. Compared to the four humors, they were external factors believed to influence health, and physicians would advise patients to regulate these aspects of their lives to manage disease and promote balance.

Question 13

Hunayn Ibn Ishaq (Johannitus, 809-873)

Answer 13

Prominent islamic translator who aimed to produce a better translation of Greek Hippocratic texts into his Native language of Syriac and then Arabic than his earlier translators in an effort to preserve their work rather than impose his own ideas. Him and other translators are part of the reason why Hippocratic/Galenic tradition is still so well-preserved since translations were cross checked which required skill and labor.

Question 14

Ibn-Sina (Avicenna 980-1037)

Answer 14

Developed the Canon which synthesized many popular medical traditions in Ancient Greece, Rome, Persia, along with his own society and made it popularized and accessible. Part of the Age of Medical Compendia or a mass compilation of medical knowledge was assembled, and Hippocratic medicine was both continued and changed.

Question 15

Constitutional vs. ontological approaches to disease

Answer 15

Constitutional included four humors in ancient Greece and qi in ancient China and believed balancing elements of the body and body’s constitution preceded disease. Ontological model posited that disease is a real, biological set of factors that require scientific expertise to manage and is associated with consolidation of medical authority.

Question 16

TCM (Traditional Chinese medicine)

Answer 16

A branch of Chinese medicine that emerged via the medical marketplace in China and became popularized c. 200 BCE as it was sponsored by emperors around the time of the Han Dynasty. It emphasizes a naturalistic and constitutional approach to health and disease that focuses on managing the flow of qi in the body through therapeutic practices which include acupuncture, pulse taking, herbal remedies, moxibustion, and more. Traditional Chinese Medicine has borrowed from other traditions, such as acupuncture from Asian shamans, adapted to new medical environments, such as biomedicine in the US, and persisted until current day so it has proven to be incredibly adaptable and long lasting.

Question 17

Nei Cheng (The Yellow Emperor’s Classic of Internal Medicine)

Answer 17

Developed from the 1st to the 8th century CE and it lays out the basic medical philosophy of classical Chinese medicine as it became consolidated and sponsored by the Han dynasty. It emphasizes the use of qi, yin and yang, and the five elements and discusses therapies such as acupuncture, herbal treatments, and more. Classical Chinese Medicine has been largely influential in China

Question 18

Qi

Answer 18

The essence of the cosmos and a force that also circulates the human body, common translation is energy but some translations view it as air/vapor. It comes in different forms and can be pathogenic and can also promote health. Management of qi and the constitution of the human body is foundational to Traditional and Classical Chinese medicine.

Question 19

Yin yang

Answer 19

Refers to the two basic organizing principles of the cosmos which apply to the human body in Chinese Medicine. The outside of the body is viewed as yang while the inside is viewed as yin. Refers to the essence of the body’s qi which have yin and yang phases, practitioners believe physicians should assess patient’s condition via yin/yang principles.

Question 20

Five phases

Answer 20

Five cyclical changes that qi can undergo in the body, these include wood, fire, earth, metal, and water. Rather than material elements they refer to a change cycle and the aim of medicine is to balance these cycles.

Question 21

Christus Medicus

Answer 21

Latin translation for Christ as a figure who provides spiritual and physical healing to believer. This idea became popularized as medicine became less secular around 500-1000. Christus medicus was also characterized by new attitudes towards medicine where Christianity was seen as a religion of medical and saintly healing

Question 22

Salerno

Answer 22

A school of medicine established in Italy from 1020-1087 that emphasized the revival of ancient Greek and Arabic medical traditions. The school of Solerno was an informal community of teachers and students, and several works were translated from Greek and Arabic into Latin. The school of Solerno was part of a larger movement of learned medicine that aimed to rediscover and revive ancient medical teachings.

Question 23

Articella

Answer 23

Can be translated into Little Art of Medicine and consists of an assortment of translated works that formed the basis of European medical education by the 12th century. This was the culmination of a large scale effort of learned medicine where many scholars sought to revive ancient medical texts. It contained many prominent Greek, Roman, and Arabic medical texts A large portion of texts that were included were texts from the Hippocrates along with commentary from Galen.

Question 24

Sta. Maria Nuov

Answer 24

A hospital in Florence, Italy that was re-financed in 1288 by a wealthy merchant and then quickly became one of the region’s most important hospitals and centers of medical education, training, and treatment. The re-financing of hospitals and universities was part of a larger effort to institutionalize medical education and practice. These were key institutions that allowed learned medicine that drew from the ancient Hippocratic-Galenic tradition to exert influence across Europe, however, it still remained one style of healing.

Question 25

Hansen’s disease

Answer 25

Also known as leprosy. Leprosy was spread during the crusades aiming to recover Jerusalem from Muslim control from 1096-1270, and individuals with leprosy faced massive sigma in the Middle Ages where many social sanctions, such as lepers being forbidden to enter churches, a market, a bake house, etc. Serves as a case for Rosenburg’s idea of history where social meanings of disease shape historical events alongside biological factors associated with disease.

Question 26

Yersinia pestis

Answer 26

Bacterial pathogen associated with the Black death from 1300-1600. Although the Black death is now linked to a pathogen, many Christian and Muslim individuals framed it as religious, institutional, and medical contexts that shaped European society alongside the biological impacts of disease.

Question 27

bubonic / septicemic / pneumonic plague

Answer 27

Infection most commonly took the initial bubonic form which was spread by flees, and if bacterial colonization followed, it took the septicemic form where it caused hemorrhaging and necrosis of the skin. If the pathogen spread to the lungs after septicemic infection, it was then directly transmissible from person to person and took on the pneumonic form. The septicemic and pneumonic forms have a 100% mortality rate.

Question 28

Bubo

Answer 28

Lymphatic swelling in the groin is associated with the injection of Yersinia pestis into the lymphatic system, or the bubonic form. Infection most commonly took the initial bubonic form, and if bacterial colonization followed, it took the septicemic form where it caused hemorrhaging and necrosis of the skin. If the pathogen spread to the lungs after septicemic infection, it was then directly transmissible from person to person and took on the pneumonic form. The bubonic plague predominated from 1300-1600 and was transmitted through flees. Attributed to unsanitary conditions in medieval Europe alongside many other factors.

Question 29

Pandemic

Answer 29

Widespread occurrence of a contagious infectious disease over a country or even internationally at a given time period. Human history has been largely shaped by three key pandemics of the bubonic plague which were the ‘Plague of Justinian’ in north Africa, Asia, and Europe from 541-750 CE, the Black Death in Europe and the Middle East from 1348-1850, and another incidence where outbreaks centered around South and East Asia from 1894-1960s (first pandemic that brought the plague to the US via San Francisco)

Question 30

Miasma/Contagion

Answer 30

A common way of explaining the spread of the Black Death, where the spread of disease is attributed to bad air, or a vaporous, disease-laden atmosphere potentially from rotten organic matter. This developed before the germ theory of disease where diseases were later believed to be linked to contagions.

Question 31

Michael Dols & Justin Stearns

Answer 31

Historians who studied religious responses to the Black death, Dols believed religion directly shaped differing cultural responses between Christians and Muslims to the Black Death while Stearns critiqued this and showed how cultural practices often differed from religious beliefs (Muslims fleeing regions)

Question 32

Flagellants

Answer 32

Phenomenon where Christains whipped themselves in punishment in an effort to stop the spread of plague around 1300-1500. Instance of religious notions of plague shaping the responses of individuals.

Question 33

Quarantine

Answer 33

Part of a municipal and institutional response to the plague, was commonly used to target non Christians and unaffiliated groups who were blamed for the spread of disease.

Question 34

Renaissance & Scientific Revolution

Answer 34

Characterized by a renaissance of ancient Greek medical texts and increasing the prevalence of learned medicine via the printing press and new technologies.

Question 35

Ad Fontes

Answer 35

A Renaissance of Ancient Galenic-Hippocratic medical texts both in Greek and Latin. These medical philosophies were then expanded upon from there.

Question 36

Andreas Vesalius

Answer 36

Medical doctor and teacher from 1514-1564 who is referred to as the founder of modern anatomy. Moved away from ancient Hippocratic-Galenic texts and emphasized practical knowledge, direct observation, dissection, and empirical treatments.

Question 37

William Harvey

Answer 37

Medical doctor who emphasized the new science, which moved away from the Hippocratic-Galenic tradition and emphasized learned medicine at the bedside and a mechanical rather than humoral understanding of the human body. This was developed around the early 1600s and he emphasized developing an understanding of human anatomy through direct observation. He is most well known for developing the idea of circulation via the heart and lungs by the beat of ventricles, and he developed this through observation.

Question 38

mechanical philosophy

Answer 38

Contrasts with the humoral philosophy developed by ancient Greece and posits that the body can be viewed as a machine. Theory was developed around 1685 and describes a general trend of European medical thought that took hold by 1700.

Question 39

Tenochtitlan

Answer 39

Center of Aztec medicine which blended the natural with the supernatural. Aztec medicine was a form of unofficial healing and medicine which clashed with Spanish notions of institutional medicine around early 1700s.

Question 40

triangular trade

Answer 40

Emerged in the 16th and 17th centuries and is characterized by a cycle of trading between Europe, America, and Africa where Europe provided manufactured goods to Africa in exchange for slaves, and then slaves were provided to America and they were used to produce manufactured goods and raw materials for Europe.

Question 41

Columbian Exchange

Answer 41

System of exchanging goods between Europe, Africa, and America in the 16th and 17th centuries that involved the use of slavery to manufacture goods. Columbian exchange globalized disease which affected different populations differently, but historians disagree on how to cast the role of disease in the European conquest of the Americas (virgin soil emphasizing biology vs emphasizing culture/power)

Question 42

Alfred Crosby

Answer 42

Developed the virgin soil thesis which posited that indigenous populations were biologically defenseless against Old World diseases and therefore died disproportionately. Critics challenge this claiming that it overemphasizes biology at the expense of other factors such as colonialism.

Question 43

Virgin Soil epidemics

Answer 43

Waves of disease that followed the Columbian Exchange, first wave was influenza, smallpox, measles, typus brought by Columbus and other European explorers from 1492-1520s and second wave was around 1520s and consisted of malaria and yellow fever that was brought by African slaves. 1st wave affected all indigenous communities while second affected both Indians and Spaniards but native communities suffered disproportionately. Different ideas on why disease disproportionately affected Native Americans (biology vs culture/politics).

Question 44

Middle Passage

Answer 44

The transport of slaves from Africa to the Americas that occurred from 1570s-1870s. This was part of the Columbian Exchange which allowed disease to become more globalized, and it also upended the culture of African slaves.

Question 45

“Soundness”

Answer 45

Measurement of a slave’s physical state and also to their past and future health during slavery in the US from 1700s-1800s. For female slaves could refer to female’s capacity to bear children, minds and personalities were also subject to market assessment, defined by the capacity to labor, reproduce, obey, and submit. Physicians were recruited to assess soundness and participate in the system of slavery, one way slavery was medicalized.

Question 46

Dr. Samuel Cartwright

Answer 46

Coined the term Drapetomania in 1850s, which referred to a disease that caused slaves to run away. Part of the medicalization of slavery where the desire to escape conditions of slavery was framed as a horrific disease.

Question 47

Drapetomania

Answer 47

Coined by Dr. Samuel Cartwright in 1850s that referred to a disease that caused slaves to try and escape their owners. Part of the larger phenomenon that medicalized slavery since desire to escape conditions was framed as a disease of the mind which should be cured via medical protocols.

Question 48

Dr. Marion Sims

Answer 48

Considered to be the founder of modern gynecology but conducted painful gynecological experiments on female slaves in the mid-1800s. These were painful and performed without consent. Serves as one case of how slavery was medicalized.

Question 49

“social death”

Answer 49

Orlando Patterson posited that slavery had a cultural impact and led to an erosion of Black/African culture, Middle passage epitomizes this. But slaves kept medical culture alive through herbal/conjuring medicine, these were in many ways “arts of resistance”

Question 50

“medical superbodies”

Answer 50

Coined by Dr. Cooper Owens c. 2018, describes the practice where elite white physicians practicing medicine on African female slaves perpetuated the racist ideology that African women are stronger biologically but inferior mentally. Inherent contradiction on medicine, writing as if each group was biologically different

Question 51

constitutional versus ontological notions of disease

Answer 51

Constitutional is the concept that disease manifests itself uniquely in an individual based on their humoral constitution, physicians moved away from this in the 19th century. Ontological is the concept that disease is a real, physical set of factors that lead to sickness (pathogens, tumors, etc.). Physicians moved towards this model over the 19th century and pioneered in Paris.

Question 52

René Laënnec (1781-1826)

Answer 52

Developed the stethoscope which was associated with a shift in medicine becoming more hospital based. Part of a larger trend that took place in Paris which emphasized an observational style of medicine using clinical instruments, careful physical exams, and post mortem dissection after the 1800s.

Question 53

Laboratory revolution, Justus von Liebig (1803-1873)

Answer 53

Central site of this process was Germany around 1840, Liebig Model emerged as a result of this where developing explanations for biological underpinnings of disease was sometimes prioritized over patient’s wellbeing

Question 54

germ theory of disease

Answer 54

Proposed by Louis Paster in France 1878 after he studied the cause behind the disease of silkworms via a microscope and identified a parasite. The theory posits that microorganisms, specifically bacteria and parasites, are the central cause of disease, and this was later supported by Robert Koch in Berlin when he identified micro-organisms responsible for tuberculosis in 1882 and cholera in 1883. This revolutionized scientists’ understanding of disease and pioneered new approaches to treating previously devastating diseases, such as antibiotics and other pharmaceuticals that target pathogens.

Question 55

epidemiological transition

Answer 55

Second epidemiological transition occurred between 1750 and 1914, characterized by an increase in life expectance and decline of death from infectious disease due to several medical innovations. Public health movements emerged in response to these shifts where proponents aimed to use the state to improve urban health.

Question 56

Medicalization

Answer 56

Phenomenon that emerged as scientific medicine made many advancements, such as germ theory, where many different aspects of life became medicalized.

Question 57

miasma

Answer 57

Belief that disease was spread through “bad air” which as linked to unsanitary conditions. Became especially prominent in the mid 1800s in Europe as industrialization and urbanization was taking hold and unsanitary conditions in cities were becoming more prevalent. As the spread of disease started to become linked to specific elements such as feces infested water rather than a more broad miasma around the mid 1800s, sanitation became more widespread, public health responses to sanitation were enacted and the state was invoked.

Question 58

Public Health Acts (1848-54, 1875-)

Answer 58

These were bourgeois responses to the new problems of sanitation in industrial society and particularly cities. Acts were motivated by the class interests of leaders where they sought to use to state to improve the health of urban populations. Specifically, responses tended to be to cholera and aimed to rebuild new sanitary infrastructure such as drainage, the improvement of the water supply, removal of feces, and more (John Simon aimed to raise funds in the 1850s).

Question 59

Health Boards, London Medical Department (f. 1854)

Answer 59

London medical department was a recently established organization that aimed to build new sanitary infrastructure to lessen the spread of disease. Specifically in the mid-1800s, John Simon, the chief medical officer, used John Snow’s theory that feces infested water spread cholera to push for the building of new sanitary infrastructure. Medical department also put restrictions on purchasing goods deemed poisonous/unsanitary, prohibited some commercial sales of water, and also mandated medical assistance to an epidemic along with vaccinations.

Question 60

Nitrous oxide (laughing gas), ether, chloroform

Answer 60

Forms of anesthesia that developed around the mid to late 1800s, and the first operation under ether occurred in Boston in 1846. Allowed for more effective surgical interventions and correlated with developments in scientific medicine.

Question 61

Ignaz Semmelweis (1818-1865) & Joseph Lister (1827-1912)

Answer 61

Ignaz Semmelweis was a Hungarian scientist who discovered that handwashing can reduce the incidence of infection/fever after surgery. Joseph Lister was a British surgeon who is considered the founder of antiseptic surgery after applying carbolic acid to wounds to reduce the incidence of wound infection, which was previously fatal in many cases. Both correlated with developments in scientific medicine.

Question 62

Therapeutic nihilism

Answer 62

Response to the emerging scientism of Western medicine that was prominent in the early 1900s. It criticized focus of doctors on biological causes of disease rather than the overall patient and correlated with pushes for “patient as a person” care from late 1800s to early 1900s.

Question 63

Cholera bacillus (Robert Koch, 1884)

Answer 63

Pathogen for cholera discovered by Robert Koch using laboratory methods. Provided evidence for the germ theory of disease proposed by Louis Paster in 1878. This pioneered scientific and laboratory medicine.

Question 64

Elephantiasis

Answer 64

Disease causing swelling and patchy skin that was studied by Patrick Mason in the late 1800s and early 1900s, likely via experimenting on his servants. Manson discovered that the disease was developed through a worm filaria and spread via tropical insects. His research on elephantiasis caused him to declare the need for a new branch of medicine, tropical medicine, as a manual of warm climate disease and developed a Manual of Tropical Diseases in 1898.

Question 65

Schools of Tropical Medicine (1898-)

Answer 65

Developed after Patrick Manson declared the need for a new branch of medicine after studying several tropical diseases. Emerged as Europeans encountered unfamiliar diseases as they colonized several tropical regions throughout the 1800s. Unfamiliar, tropical diseases were proposed to have parasitic causes while familiar ones had bacterial ones, and tropical medicine was invented to study the proposed parasites in an effort to consolidate the formation of overseas European colonies.

Question 66

Rubert Boyce, Mosquito or Man? The Conquest of the Tropical World (1909)

Answer 66

Work that popularized new scientific discoveries on tropical medicine, namely the identification of malaria as a parasite and the details of its life cycle in insects. The work was taught in Schools of Tropical Medicine, which were educational centers aiming to facilitate the European colonization of tropical regions.

Question 67

Sitala

Answer 67

Deemed the Hindu goddess of smallpox around late 1800s in India, shows cultural differences in notions of disease. Priests of Sitala ritualized the practice of healing from smallpox in the goddesses name, and these practices include forbidding the introduction of meat, laying the patient on a plantain tree leaf, only prescribing milk as food, and performing a puja.

Question 68

Tikadars (variolators)

Answer 68

Indian medical practitioners who treated smallpox via variolation around the early 1800s. They inoculated children with a metal instrument containing pus previously collected from infected individuals in their arm. They then employed a treatment where the children bathed and eat chilly and juicy food repeatedly until the contracted a fever and then were recovered and immune in three weeks, in the three weeks they were isolated from family.

Question 69

arm-to-arm transmission

Answer 69

Process by which tikadars (variolators) managed smallpox in India around the early 1800s.

Question 70

penicillin

Answer 70

Discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1928 in Scotland, revolutionized bacterial treatment.

Question 71

Rickets

Answer 71

Softening and weakening of bones in children, likely due to a prolonged vitamin D deficiency. The push to reduce the incidence of rickets in the early 1900s correlated with a push towards eugenics where mothers were encouraged to reproduce with healthy men and produce healthy babies that would grow to be healthy workers and soldiers.

Question 72

Scientific motherhood

Answer 72

Form of medicalizing family life in the early 1900s in the US. Associated with a push for mothers to marry and conduct their lives in order to have healthy children that would grow to be healthy workers and soldiers.

Question 73

Eugenics

Answer 73

Developed in the Europe and the US, specifically centralized around London, in the early 1900s with the aim to selectively breed individuals to develop the inborn qualities of a race to their highest advantage. Aim was also to eradicate diseases and conditions and promote their citizen’s health, national identity component.

Question 74

Francis Galton (1822-1911)

Answer 74

Popularized eugenics in the early 1900s saying that it is the direction of human evolution. Aimed to bolster good genes and prevent genetically unfit from reproducing.

Question 75

Buck v. Bell (USA, 1924)

Answer 75

Supreme court case that mandates the compulsory sterilization via vaccination of individuals with “three generations of imbeciles.” This was based off of principles of eugenics and imbeciles was loosely defined. Aim was to bolster negative eugenics and prevent individuals deemed “genetically unfit” from reproducing.

Question 76

racial hygiene (Germany, 1933-45)

Answer 76

Ethos in Germany to standardize the racial makeup of the population towards an Aryan ideal, inspired by eugenic philosophy.

Question 77

Rockefeller Foundation (f. 1913) and its International Health Board

Answer 77

Aimed to standardize medical education and public health by promoting and internationalizing ideas surrounding medicine originating in the US and Europe. The aim was to disseminate scientific medicine to the non-Western world in order to aid economic development and eradicate single diseases. The technocratic attitude to disease where health/disease were problems to be solved with science and technology was embraced with this approach.

Question 78

Peking Union Medical College (relaunched 1921)

Answer 78

First medical college to offer an eight-year MD program in China. Emerged in response to the ethos of the Rockefeller foundation to disseminate Western science around the world.

Question 79

multidrug resistant tuberculosis

Answer 79

Form of TB that resurged around 1985 after many Euroamerican countries stopped disseminating immunizations. The burden of disease is currently highest in Africa, and the form of TB is also resistant to many antibiotic drugs. One of several other disease that came back in the late 1900s, others were measles, diphtheria, and cholera.

Question 80

diseases of affluence

Answer 80

Diseases that became the focus of medical attention around the 1980s in Euroamerican countries that were associated with “over nutrition” and sedentary lifestyles. These were type 2 diabetes, heart disease, colorectal cancers, and obesity. Associated with aims to improve lifestyle/eating habits.

Question 81

AIDS epidemic, 1980s

Answer 81

Example of a new disease that emerged and quickly spread globally. Associated with medical pessimism since it could not easily be combatted by medical authorities via a vaccine or other treatment.

Question 82

Post-colonial medicine

Answer 82

A vision of health and development by global health organizations that emerged after World War II and emphasized the economic benefits of extending health to all. Emerged in opposition to colonial medicine which dominated in the early 1900s and was linked to the economic interests of colonizers, was based on the faith of Western medicine to cure all conditions via scientific innovation, and tended to dismiss local medical practices. Paradox was the post-colonial states had limited resources and medical experts so post-colonial medicine encouraged a dependence on the Western medical model and Western aid, where it was assumed that high tech and hospital based medicine was ideal. It broke with some aspects of colonial medicine via the health for all and had a new political context with the Cold war, but it also continued some aspects of western medicine such as disdain for local practices and Western exceptionalism in medicine.

Question 83

World Health Organization (f. 1948)

Answer 83

International Public health organization that was developed by United Nations Agencies after World War II to foster peace. It’s goal was to assist people around the world in attaining the highest levels of health beyond merely the absence of disease, and it functioned by coordinating international health work, assisting governments to strengthen health services, research and education, and more. Major accomplishment of the WHO was the eradication of smallpox and largely polio. Vertical, top down strategies were used against single diseases (such as smallpox), and horizontal strategies were used to improve health care systems.

Question 84

Health Care for All by the Year 2000 (launched 1978)

Answer 84

WHO initiative that built upon the original aim of the WHO and emphasized access to primary health care services for all individuals. Horizontal approaches that built up local health care systems were encouraged.