Health and Medicine [c1000 - Present day] Flashcards
(90 cards)
1
Q
Who was Hippocrates?
A
A Greek Doctor, who developed the theory of the Four Humours and the Hippocratic oath.
2
Q
What were the Four Humours?
A
The belief that the body was made up of 4 basic elements;
- Blood
- Phlegm
- Yellow Bile
- Black Bile
and when the Humours were out of balance it made the person ill.
3
Q
What is the Hippocratic Oath?
A
An oath taken by doctors, promising to be ethical and not harm patients.
4
Q
Who was Galen?
A
A physician who encouraged dissection [although it was illegal] and developed the Theory of Opposites.
5
Q
What is the Theory of Opposites?
A
The idea that if one of your 4 Humours were out of balance you should restore the balance by giving the patient the ‘opposite’ of their symptoms.
6
Q
What were some of the natural approaches to disease?
A
- Using herbs to make ‘medicine’
- Burning herbs to create a strong smell getting rid of miasma
7
Q
Name 3 supernatural approaches to disease?
A
- Astrology; the position of moons and stars were responsible for illness
- Praying; Illness was a punishment from God
- Flagellation (whipping oneself); to show god they were sorry for their sins
8
Q
How did people study Medicine in the medieval era?
A
- Read the books of Hippocrates and Galen’s ideas.
- Students were trained by observing patients and watching dissection of bodies.
9
Q
4 characteristics of how Medieval Hospitals were like?
A
- They were clean
- ‘Care’ rather than ‘cure’; didn’t treat the sick just offered hospitality .
- People shared beds
- Funded by the rich
10
Q
State 2 negative consequences of the Church and Medicine being closely linked?
A
- Belief in supernatural stopped doctors from attempting to find the true reason for illness
- Dissection was forbidden; so there were many wrong ideas about the anatomy of the body
11
Q
How did the Church possibly have made a progression in medicine?
A
- They ran most hospitals
- Encouraged people to go to the Crusades; which put them in touch with more skilled and knowledgeable Islamic doctors.
12
Q
What was the Crusades?
A
A religious war between Christians and Muslims over ‘holy’ land
13
Q
3 characteristics of Islamic medicine?
A
- They challenged ancient ideas
- They believed that there were natural medication for every illness
- Creation of Pharmacies [the science of preparing and giving out medicine]
14
Q
What were some of the problems in medieval surgery?
A
- Infection; they were unaware that dirt carried disease
- Shock and pain; Surgeries were so painful they could lead a patient to be in a state of shock or even death [due to the excessive bleeding etc…]
15
Q
What were barber surgeons?
A
‘Surgeons’ who travelled the country treating Soldiers who had been wounded in battle.
- They were unqualified and learnt on-job
15
Q
Who was Albucasis?
A
A famous Islamic Surgeon who invented new surgical instrument and wrote books on surgery, how to treat patients etc…
16
Q
Who was Hugh of Lucca?
A
A famous surgeon who found that Wine was very good for treating wounds. [Served in the army during the crusades]
17
Q
Who was John Ardene?
A
An English Surgeon who developed a pain-killing ointment made of opium and hemlock.
[Served in the battlefields as a surgeon]
18
Q
Explain 3 Characteristics of a Medieval Town that could have led to disease
A
- Houses were close together so faster spread of disease
- Contaminated rivers [with Human waste]
- No rules for getting rid of waste [rubbish all over the streets]
19
Q
3 things Medieval Monasteries did to stay clean and hygienic ?
A
- Took water from upstream [before it was contaminated]
- Monks and nuns had some remedies/herbs
- Had an importance on keeping clean
20
Q
Give an example of a Medieval town that made efforts to clean up.
A
A town in Coventry, who banned fly tipping and removed toilets built over rivers.
21
Q
What was the Black Death?
A
An Epidemic which was spread though rats and fleas.
22
Q
How did people attempt to cure themselves of the Plague?
Provide 2 natural and 2 supernatural ways
A
Natural:
- ‘Correcting’ the imbalance of humours via theory of opposites
- Smelling strong herbs to avoid ‘miasma’
Supernatural:
- Praying for forgiveness
- Flagellation [To show god your sorry for your sins]
23
Q
3 impact the Black Death had Socially and Economically?
A
- It killed both the rich and poor
- Panic
- Demand of increase in wages from workers; as there were less people to work certain jobs
24
What was the Renaissance? [1400-1700]
A time of new ideas and interest.
[The Printing Press made during this period]
25
Who was Vesalius?
[contreversial brudda with da book]
A Professor of Anatomy who;
- Wrote a book named 'On the Fabric of The Human Body', correcting 300+ of Galen's mistakes.
- Argued the importance of learning from dissection rather than books.
26
Who was Pare?
A Barber Surgeon who invented a new way of sealing wounds using Ligatures
Ligature; Material used to tie something in surgery, made of gut, silk etc...
27
Who was Harvey?
A Physician who;
- Proved that blood circulates around the body and that the heart acted as a pump for the system.
[Essentially, the basis of the circulatory system.]
28
What were quacks?
Dishonest medical practitioners who mixed herbal ingredients promising patients it was the cure.
29
What is the Scientific approach?
Using human participants for medical research
29
What was the Great Plague?
A return of the Bubonic Plague but thiss time worse than before.
30
What were some of the beliefs about the cause of the Great Plague?
- Once again people continued to believe it was a punishment from God
- That the disease was created from miasma
31
How did people again attempt to treat the Great Plague?
- Balancing 4 humours [By blood letting etc...]
- Burning Herbs to not smell miasma
None of these worked, shows the continuity.
32
What were some of the preventive measures for the Great Plague?
- Closing borders with Scotland
- Infected houses were locked up
- Strict orders about movement of people
- The Lord Mayors orders.
Even though the plague continued to rise some historians argue it could've been worse.
33
What where some of the changes in Hospitals [During the late 18th century/Early 19th Century]?
- Moved from just Caring to Treatment
- Hospitals became cleaner [especially after Pasteur's' Germ theory]
- Nurses had a more central role caring for patients and assisting doctors
34
Who was Florence Nightingale?
A nurse who published books on Hospital Organisation - after she had helped decrease the death rate from 42% to 2%, during the Crimean war.
She also set up Britain's First Nurse School.
35
What is inoculation?
Deliberately infecting with a disease to avoid a more severe case later.
36
What is smallpox and what affects did it have on Britain ?
A contagious disease that killed around 35'000 people [in 1796]
36
Who is Edward Jenner?
A country doctor who discovered that by injecting cowpox [weaker than smallpox] it will make you immune to Smallpox.
37
How where some of the people who opposed Vaccination?
- Doctors who charged for Inoculation were worried they were going to lose income
- People believed that smallpox was Gods will and we should just let it be.
- People were disgusted that they had to be injected with a disease for animals.
38
Who is Louis Pasteur?
A French Chemist who Pasteurisation [Germs could be killed by heating them]
39
What is Spontaneous Generation ?
The belief that living organisms can spring into existence from non-living matter
40
What is Germ Theory ?
A Scientific Breakthrough that proves living microorganisms are the result of disease and heating these microbes can kill them.
41
Why was Germ Theory so important?
- Changed the way we treated disease forever; instead of relying on superstition we actually could find a treatment
- Later let us know that the microorganisms in the air could create disease.
42
Who was Robert Koch?
A German Doctor who developed the Germ Theory and proved that microorganisms were responsible for causing disease. Also, he developed a way of staining bacteria so that they could be seen under a microscope.
He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1905.
43
What was the Publics opinion on Germ Theory?
Some were still not convinced and still believed that Disease came from Miasma (bad air)… This had a big impact as took longer for it to be accepted as truth and delayed the improvement of Public Health Policies.
44
What are 'magic bullets'?
Chemicals that attach to germs and kill them
45
Who is Paul Ehrlich?
A German Chemist who was part of Robert Koch's research team. He discovered the process for using chemical dyes to stain and kill SPECIFIC bacteria and not harm anything else in the patients body.
[He won the Nobel prize in 1908], [A year later he found the cure for Syphilis, which was Salvarsan]
46
What impact did Paul Ehrlich work have on medicine
- Instead of just trying to find a way to treat against disease, Scientists were now encouraged to go out and look for the cure.
- He found 'Magic Bullets' for many diseases; such as Syphilis...
- It was the first time someone had done a large-scale experimenting in drug research before
47
What were the beliefs about what caused disease, in the early 19th century?
- Miasma
- Spontaneous generation
- Supernatural reasons
- Imbalance of 4 humours
48
What are the beliefs of what caused disease, in 20th century?
- The large majority came to accept Germ theory after its undeniable change and improvements it made to medicine.
49
How did treatment change for people after Germ theory?
- Hospitals became 'germ conscious' and thus became cleaner
- There was a rapid increase in the number of drugs created to treat disease
- Vaccination became more available and some diseases almost became non-existent due to herd immunity [diphtheria]
50
What is an Anaesthetic ?
A substance that makes you unable to to feel pain.
51
Who is James Simpson?
A physician who worked on making Chloroform [anaesthetic] safer and more effective
51
What did people think about Anaesthetics?
- People thought it was cowardly to use anaesthetics
- Some thought it was a punishment from god
- Queen Victoria was pro-anaesthetics
52
What is Aseptic Surgery?
When germs are prevented from getting near patients. [washing hands etc...]
53
What is Antiseptic Surgery?
Substances that prevent the growth of germs. [hydrogen peroxide]
53
Who is Joseph Lister?
A British Surgeon who introduced sterile surgery [surgery free from germs] using carbolic acid.
54
How did War play a part in getting Antiseptic/Aseptic Surgery accepted?
Battlefield Surgeons began using Antiseptic/Aseptic Surgery on patients and found that there was a decrease in the number of lost patients.
55
What impact did the Industrial revolution have on Britain.
- Wages were low and more hours at work
- Children and Adults worked in dangerous conditions
- The population grew and more people lived closer together in towns rather than in the country side.
55
What did people Believe created the problems suffered in the Industrial revolution?
- Miasma
56
How was Medieval Public Health like?
- A lot of people lived so close together so disease would spread very quickly
- NO SEWERS OR RULES FOR GETTING RID OF WASTE
- People would get their water from rivers which was contaminated
57
How was 19th Century Britain Public Health like?
- Overcrowded towns and poor quality houses
- Poverty was more common
- NO RULES FOR GETTING RID OF WASTE
- Short supply of clean water
- Government took a Laissez-faire [leave alone] approach to the publics health
58
What is Cholera?
An infectious disease found in contaminated food and water.
59
How was Cholera an agent of change?
The disease spread extremely quickly through the cramped and filthy towns, killing both poor and rich, which forced the government to act.
60
Who is Edwin Chadwick?
The man responsible for the Public Health act 1848 [better living conditions and hygiene in towns]. He was able to show the direct link between living conditions and disease.
61
Who is John Snow?
A leading British Doctor who worked out that Cholera was caused by contaminated water.
62
Who is Joseph Bazalgette?
An engineer who engineered huge, complex networks of sewers to move waste away out to the sea. [Impact of technology on public health]
63
Why did the Government change it Laissez-Faire approach?
- Epidemics became very serious
- Work of Reformers [Chadwick etc...]
- More people voting
64
What was the [1848] Public Health Act?
Better living conditions and hygiene in towns
65
What was the [1853] Compulsory Vaccination Act?
Vaccination against Smallpox was made mandatory.
66
What was the [1855] Nuisance Removal Act?
Overcrowded housing was illegal.
67
How was Penicillin created?
- Alexander Fleming found that Mould has killed some bacteria
- A pair of scientists [Florey and Chain] discover a method of purifying and producing Penicillin.
- Scientist Margaret developed a mass-production method of penicillin
68
What were the Factors in the Development of Penicillin ?
- War; The war proved that Penicillin works
- Government; They Funded Florey and Chains research
- Individual Result; Without Florey and Chain' vital research the development may have been delayed
- Luck; Fleming saw the penicillin mould by chance
69
What is an antibiotic?
A medicine used to kill microorganisms
70
What is an antibiotic resistance?
When microorganisms become resistant to certain antibiotics
71
What is a superbug?
A type of bacteria that is resistant to most antibiotics [such as MRSA]
72
What is HIV and AIDS?
HIV is a disease that damages you immune system. AIDs is the later stages of HIV; when your body can no longer respond to simple infection appropiately.
73
What are some modern alternatives to medicine?
- Acupuncture; inserting needles into the skin with the aim of helping the body balance itself
- Hypnotherapy; Using hypnosis to treat illness
- Herbs; 'natural' remedies etc...
74
What were some of the major developments in Surgery?
- Plastic Surgery; to rebuild faces of men who fought in war
- X-Rays; To workout what is wrong with a patient
- Transplants; Heart, Kidney transplants etc...
- Blood transfusion
75
How did War in the 20th Century affect surgery?
As war was becoming more dangerous and more damage was being dealt so it forced the medical industry to develop new techniques to treat against the damage: For example, it introduced Neurosurgery and blood transfusions were widespread .
76
Who is Booth [1892]?
A wealthy Businessman who produced a report on poverty in London. He concluded that 30% of London lived in poverty.
77
Who is Rowntree [1899]?
A man who worked with Booth to study poverty in York. They concluded that 30% of York lived in poverty. He also came up with the term 'poverty line' to describe the amount of money people ha to have to simply stay out of poverty.
78
What is the National Insurance Act [1911] give to people?
- Free healthcare [up to a limit], sickness benefit etc... You had to earn less than £160 to qualify.
79
What was 'Homes fit for all Heroes'?
A promise for soldiers who fought in WW1 that they would receive a healthy home.
80
What was the Beveridge Report?
A report that aimed to provide everyone with welfare. The report stated that there were Five main things that stopped people from living a better life [otherwise known as the 5 Giants]
81
What were the 5 Giants?
The 5 things that stopped people from living better lived;
- Lack of Education
- Poor housing conditions
- Poor Quality health
- Unemployment
- Poverty
82
What is the NHS?
Britain's National Health Service which aims to provide free healthcare for the public
83
What were some of the Successes of the NHS?
- Reduced illness and death among children by a huge amount
- The NHS had modern equipment which meant there was better treatment
84
What were some of the Challenges faced by the NHS?
- Sustain the NHS was too costly and National Insurance contributions only covered 10% of the cost
- Hospitals were [and still are] unable to care for all patients
- The cost was so high that by the 1950s changes had to be made [prescription charges etc...] So it was unable to fulfil its promise
