Health and the People

Question 1

Who could you be treated by in Medieval England?

Answer 1

Barber surgeons in towns did bloodletting and minor surgery, wise men/women in the village gave herbal remedies, travelling healers in markets and fairs extracted teeth.

Question 2

What beliefs of causes of diseases did medieval treatment become based upon?

Answer 2

Natural, Christian church approved Galens ideas, four humours and clinical observation.

Supernatural, anything not treatable by Hippocrates and Galen were explained by the position of stars, praying and charms for treatment.

Question 3

What was the four humours?

Answer 3

A person became ill if the four humours were not in balance, and the doctors job was to restore the balance.

Question 4

How did Christianity affect Medieval medicine positively?

Answer 4

Good to look after the sick. Monks preserved and copied ancient medical texts. Hospitals were set up and funded by the church. 700 were set up between 1000 and 1500.

Question 5

How did Christianity affect Medieval medicine negatively?

Answer 5

Praying was better treatment than drugs. Illness was a punishment from god and curing that would challenge god’s will. Mainly cared never cured people. Ancient Greek medical ideas were approved and taught in universities, old books weren’t to be questioned, no new research.

Question 6

How did islam have an influence on medieval medicine? The 3 people?

Answer 6

786-809: al-Rashid made Baghdad the centre of translation of greek manuscripts to Arabic.

805: al-Rashid set up a major new hospital with a medical school and library.

813-833: al-mamum made al-Rashid’s library into the study centre for schools.

Question 7

How did Islamic medical knowledge spread?

Answer 7

Arrived in Italy in 1065 through the Latin translations of a merchant, Constantine the African.
Universities in Padua and Bologna in Italy were the best places to study medicine in medieval Europe. Reached England through trade.

Question 8

What are some Islamic ideas about medicine?

Answer 8

Mental illness were treated with compassion. Valued the books of Galen and Hippocrates, learned from them. Bimaristans were meant to actually cure people not just care for them.

Question 9

What is a Bimaristans?

Answer 9

Muslim hospital

Question 10

Who are some important Islamic doctors?

Answer 10

Rhazes: distinguished measles from smallpox.
Avicenna: wrote “Canon of Medicine”, the combination of Islamic and Greek medicine.
Ibn al-Nafis: Found out that Galen was wrong about how the heart worked.

Question 11

What is bloodletting?

Answer 11

Cutting a person to let them bleed to restore the four humours in them.

Question 12

Limitations of Medieval surgery?

Answer 12

Operated without painkillers
No clue dirt carried disease
Thought pus in a wound was good
Couldn’t help with deep wounds

Question 13

What is trepanning?

Answer 13

Drilling a hole into the skull to let the demons out for epilepsy.

Question 14

What is cauterisation?

Answer 14

Burning a wound to stop the flow f blood using heated iron.

Question 15

What was used as an anaesthetic in medieval times?

Answer 15

Opium, hemlock and mandrake root, too much would kill the patient

Question 16

Who was John the Arderne?

Answer 16

Famous English surgeon that produced a “Guild of Surgeons” in 1368.

Question 17

Who was Abulcasis?

Answer 17

Muslim surgeon that wrote a 30 volume book, “Al Tasrif”, in 1000, made cauterisation popular and made 26 new surgical instruments and new procedures.

Question 18

How was public health unhygienic in medieval towns?

Answer 18

Water: rivers were used to dispose of waste.
Sewage: cesspits could overflow onto roads and rivers.
Rubbish: toilet waste and household waste filled with the streets with a stink.
Tradesmen’s waste: butchers dumped blood and guts into the rivers.

Question 19

How was public health hygienic in medieval towns?

Answer 19

Water: clean from springs or wells.
Sewage: money in wills paid for privies in towns and cesspits collected the waste.
Rubbish: laws were passed to keep their front of their houses tidy and clean.
Tradesmen’s waste: councils encouraged them to keep in certain areas and keep them clean.

Question 20

Why was it difficult to keep medieval towns clean?

Answer 20

Growing population meant it was hard to cope.
Rivers were used to drink from, transport and to remove waste.
Thought “bad air” was to blame whereas it was actually germs that lead to disease and infection.

Question 21

Why were conditions better in monasteries due to wealth?

Answer 21

Money spent on cleaner facilities.
Land and money was left to them in order for prayers to be said for them.
Monks made lots from sheep.

Question 22

Why were conditions better in monasteries due to knowledge?

Answer 22

Monks understood books.
Separated waste and clean water for toilet and wash areas.
Followed the Ancient Roman routine of a good diet, sleep and exercise to balance the humours.

Question 23

Why were conditions better in monasteries due to rules?

Answer 23

Monks obeyed the abbot strictly, lead simple lives and kept clean.

Question 24

Why were conditions better in monasteries due to location?

Answer 24

Near water so that they could function the mills and kitchens, and the isolation helped to protect monks from epidemics.

Question 25

What were believed causes of the Black Death in 1348?

Answer 25

Bad air Wells poisoned by Jews Punishment from God Position of stars

Question 26

What were the actual causes of the Black Death?

Answer 26

Bacteria Fleas Malnourished people were more vulnerable

Question 27

Remedies against the Black Death? PUMA?

Answer 27

Prayer Unusual remedies, drinking mercury Moving away if they thought a plague was coming Avoiding contact with people who might be infected, quarantined areas

Question 28

Social impact of the Black Death?

Answer 28

Whole villages wiped out

Question 29

Political impact of the Black Death?

Answer 29

Higher wages contributed to the peasants revolt (1381) and the weakening of the feudal system.

Question 30

Religious impact of the Black Death?

Answer 30

Damage to the Catholic Church because experienced priests died; others ran away.

Question 31

Economic impact of the Black Death?

Answer 31

Food prices went up Sheep farmers meant less workers, more unemployed Farm workers demanded higher wages

Question 32

How many people of Europe died to the Black Death?

Answer 32

Half of the population in Europe died of the Black Death

Question 33

What was the Renaissance in the 1400s?

Answer 33

Began in Italy, people were payed to investigate the Greeks and the Romans. It was a rebirth of learning as more and more people came out and criticised the original ideas. The printing press in 1451 made books cheap and quick to produce around the world.

Question 34

What were the consequences of the Renaissance?

Answer 34

New lands, learning, inventions, art and printing. It was moving away from the church and Greek/Islamic ideas.

Question 35

What did Vesalius do?

Answer 35

Dissections we’re done to prove Galen, never challenge, he wrote “The fabric of the human body” (1543) and corrected Galen. Medical students should learn from him.

Question 36

What was the reaction to Vesalius?

Answer 36

Criticised heavily, yet his contribution in England was noticeable, his dissections were used in a surgeons handbook.

Question 37

What were Paré’s contribution to medical progress in England?

Answer 37

Used a cream instead of an oil on wounds, soldiers seemed to heal better. Used ligatures for less pain but were slow and not used on the battlefield. Included drawings of false limbs in his books.

Question 38

William Harvey’s contribution to medical progress was?

Answer 38

He dissected human hearts and found out that blood was circulated around the body one way.

Question 39

What were reactions to Harvey’s discovery?

Answer 39

Went against Galen and people said he was mad but doctors accepted it. Went against the bloodletting in four humours. 4 years after he died, in 1661 a microscope found veins and arteries.

Question 40

What was the significance of Harvey’s discoveries?

Answer 40

Made transfusions happen in 1901, when blood groups were discovered. Now it is used to quickly test and diagnose illness, and to carry out advanced surgery like organ transplants.

Question 41

Remedies that were used to treat the Great plague?

Answer 41

smoking moving to the countryside bloodletting through leaches the great fire of london (ended the great plague) using animals such as frogs or snakes to "draw out the poison"

Question 42

when was the great plague of london? | How many poeple died

Answer 42

1665 | killed 100,000 londoners

Question 43

when was the great fire of london that caused the plague to end?

Answer 43

1666

Question 44

what did people do differently with the great plague than the black death?

Answer 44

more effective quaratine, dirt leads to disease, gatherings of crowds were banned, it was a more organised approach to it all.

Question 45

medical treatments in the 17th and 18th century were traditional and new, what were they?

Answer 45

barbour surgeons, apothecaries, wise women, quacks (travelling salesmen that sold "cures"), trained doctors

Question 46

Who was john hunter?

Answer 46

he founded a scientific approach to surgery. allowed observations and worked on himself, based on his discoveries and dissections he wrote 3 books. One in 1771, 1786, 1794.

Question 47

What were hospitals in the 17th and 18th century now doing thatb werent before?

Answer 47

curing the patients. 5 were built in london between 1720-50.

Question 48

What was small pox?

Answer 48

biggest killer in the 18th century, 30% who got it died, symtopms were a fever, headache, rash, pus-filled blisters.

Question 49

What is inoculation?

Answer 49

you give a healthy person a small dose of the disease to help build up resistance to small pox.

Question 50

what were the problems with inoculation?

Answer 50

religious reasons, too high of a dose killed, the poor couldn't afford it.

Question 51

How did Edward Jenner find a vaccination for smallpox?

Answer 51

used cowpox to vaccinated against smallpox, published his findings in a book in 1798 there was opposition. £10,000 grant was given in 1802 to Jenner by Parliament.

Question 52

What were reasons to opposition to anaesthetics?

Answer 52

surgeons had to work quickly, soldiers should put up with the pain, religous reasons when giving birth and they didn't understand that bigger people needed a bigger dose.

Question 53

Surgeons had to work quickly to reduce the pain felt by the patients, so they refused new anaestics. What were those anaestetics?

Answer 53

Nitrous oxide: Humphrey Davy in 1800. Ether: 1842, William Clark. hard to inhale. Chloroform: safe and effective, in 1847, by Dr James Simpson.

Question 54

why was anaesthetics fashionable in 1853?

Answer 54

When Queen Victoria used one whilst giving birth.

Question 55

what was spontaneuos generation?

Answer 55

using microscopes scientists found microbes, they thought they were produced by decay and thought all microbes were the same.

Question 56

What did loius pasteur prove regarding the germ theory?

Answer 56

that spontaneous generation was wrong and that germs, not chemicals, caused decay.

Question 57

The Germ Theory: What was Joseph Lister's antiseptic aproach?

Answer 57

spray carbolic acid on hands, areas, bandages and instruments. August, 1865, he operated on a young boy and used carbolic acid and the kid could keep his leg.

Question 58

The Germ Theory: What was Joseph Lister's conclusion?

Answer 58

microbes in air caused infection not spontaneous generation. Published the results of 11 cases in 1867, with use of antiseptics.

Question 59

The Germ Theory: What was reactions to Joseph Lister's work in Britain?

Answer 59

Ideas wre unfamiliar and criticised, spotaneous generation was supported by infleuntial doctors like Charlton Bastian.

Question 60

What were reasons for opposition to antiseptic surgery?

Answer 60

carbolic irritated lungs and dried the skin, changed techniques which surgeons thought was because of ineffectiveness, operated in his street clothes.

Question 61

how did the cattle plague of 1866 prove the germ theory?

Answer 61

proved that one microbe could cause illness by contact.

Question 62

how did John Tyndall prove the germ theory?

Answer 62

went against influential Charlton Bastian and proved disease and dust, microbes were in ordinary air.

Question 63

how did Typhoid fever prove the germ theory?

Answer 63

in 1876, Geman scientist Robert Koch, identified specific germs that caused particular diseases such as typhoid and cholera and typhoid, John Tyndall taught doctors Kochs work.

Question 64

What is aseptic surgery?

Answer 64

In 1800, accepted the germ theory and by 1890 they killed the microbes before surgery instead of as the suregery progressed. Weared protectice gear and sterilised the equipment.

Question 65

What did robert koch do in regards to the Germ Theory?

Answer 65

proved that specific bacteria were responsible for a disease, used dyes to stain microbes so they stood out, perfected a lens to photograph microbes and improved growing on agar plates.

Question 66

what were factors in the struggle to develop vaccines?

Answer 66

germany and france were rivals because of the war in 1871, natural one between koch and pasteur, both had government funding to win this science war.

Question 67

what was the impact of Pasteur's and Koch's work in Britain?

Answer 67

Joseph Lister used diptheria antitoxin to half the death rate by 1905. By the 1880s accepted the germ theory, made new scientists want to prevent deadly diseases, 1909 Paul Ehrlich developed a chemical cure for syphilis, Salvarsan 606.

Question 68

How did cholera and public health get worse in the industrialisation of England?

Answer 68

Sheffield's population grew from 12,000 in 1750 to 150,000 in 1850. housing was cramped up and water came from the river which had sewage waste in it causing cholera outbreaks.

Question 69

what were health problems in the city?

Answer 69

50,000 died of cholera in 1831, more cholera outbreaks happened in 1837, 1838, 1848, 1853-54 and 1865-66, all because of lack of knowledge, overcrowing and not knowing what really caused diseases.

Question 70

what were some of the most common diseases of the 1800s?

Answer 70

typhoid - contaminated food or water. Tuberculosis (TB) - Germs passed in the air through sneezing or coughing. Cholera - contaminated food or water.

Question 71

what did Edwin Chadwick published that shocked Britain in 1842?

Answer 71

A report that believed in the mistaken miasma theory but he did emphasize cleaner streets and water.

Question 72

What were the reactions to Chadwicks report?

Answer 72

Government didnt cat on his report because of 'laissez-faire', MPs didn't want to tear down and rebuild expensive houses.

Question 73

What was the first sign of action at last from the governement?

Answer 73

After 1848 and 60,000 dying, the public health act of 1848 was passed. towns now could spend money on cleaning up the streets, by 1853, 103 towns had set up a board of health.

Question 74

What did Dr Snow do in regards to cholera and contaminated water?

Answer 74

He linked the two. 20,000 died in 1854 and he found out that the pump was contaminted, once removed they lived off a different one.

Question 75

What was the Great Sink?

Answer 75

1858 a heatwave cause the river thames to produce a "Great Stink". this panicked the government and allowed Joseph Bazalgette to build a sewer system for London.

Question 76

What was the 1875 Public Health Act?

Answer 76

In 1867, people could vote, politicians realised you get votes if you want to improve the conditions. In 1875, the act ordered local councils to appoint Medical Officers for health, remove rubbish and sewage, and supply fresh water.

Question 77

What was the name for cures that could be given to people to prevent them from ever getting the disease in the first place?

Answer 77

chemical cures were known as "magic bullets".

Question 78

What is an antibiotic?

Answer 78

medications used to cure, and in some cases prevent, bacterial infections; they aren't effective against viruses such as the common cold.

Question 79

What is a spore?

Answer 79

cell or small organism that can grow into a new organism in the correct conditions.

Question 80

How did Alexander Fleming discover the first antibiotic, penicillin?

Answer 80

He saw soldiers got so ill from the Staphylococcus germ in 1920 and wanted to find a way to treat it. 1928, he went on holiday and came back to some mould on the germ. The mould had killed the germ, it was penicillin mould, found from a spore that floated up into his lab.

Question 81

What key developments in health and medicine since 1945 were made because of the Body and Disease?

Answer 81

1953: stem cells, scientists at cambridge map out the DNA structure. 1970s and 80s: CAT scanners (1973), endoscope probes can see in the body (1975), MRI scanning (1987).

Question 82

What key developments in health and medicine since 1945 were made because of treatment?

Answer 82

1946-69: free vaccines for TB, diptheria, whooping cough, tetanus, polio, measles and rubellu. 1957: thalidomide in germany is used to treat morning sickness in pregnancies. But caused birth deformities. 1978: first use of IVF.

Question 83

What key developments in health and medicine since 1945 were made because of Surgery?

Answer 83

1950: first open heart surgery, 1958 first pacemaker, 1968, first british heart transplant. 1952, miniature hearing aids, hip replacements in 1972, and skin grafts (1984).

Question 84

What were the factors in 20th century medical developments?

Answer 84

Technology: MRI scans and allowed us to understand DNA. War: money spent on research to keep soldiers alive. Change in attitudes from politicians because they wanted to protect their people. Government and finance: lots of money into research and to find cures. Communication and Individual character: new ideas spread rapidly, ads warned people, Crick and Watson mapped the DNA structure.

Question 85

What happens when people overuse antibiotics?

Answer 85

The bacteria evolve and become antibiotic resistant.

Question 86

What did people start to realise to do with positive health and alternative treatments?

Answer 86

Acupunture, hypnotherapy and aromatherapy have become more and more popular in Britain.

Question 87

How did the impact of WW1 and WW2 have on X-rays?

Answer 87

Founded in 1895, and used to find broken bones and disease but then as mobile versions on the battlefield were seen as life savers. Surgeons didn't have to cut open people all the time.

Question 88

How did the impact of WW1 and WW2 have on Plastic Surgery?

Answer 88

Harold Gillies in WW1 did skin transplants to heal facial wounds. Queen's hospital in Kent (1917) in 1921, over 1,000 beds for soldiers with severe facial wounds.

Question 89

How did the impact of WW1 and WW2 have on Blood transfusions?

Answer 89

1900, Karl Landsteiner discovered blood groups, 1914 Hustin found that sodium citrate stopped blood form clotting, large blood banks were created because of WW1 and WW2 in America and England.

Question 90

What were negative effects on medical progress?

Answer 90

doctors taken away from their work to help casulties, research has been lost from wars destroying the buildings.

Question 91

What are some other developments relating to wars?

Answer 91

Broken bones, Heart surgery, Diet, Hygiene and disease and Drug development.

Question 92

Modern surgical methods such as transplant surgery took off, how, what was the timeline of events?

Answer 92

1952: 1st whole organ transplant, a kidney. 1967: Christian Barnard does the 1st heart transplant. 1970: Roy Calne develops the drug that syops rejection of transplant (cyclosporine). 1986: 1st heart, liver and lung transplant on one person, on Davina Thompson. 2006: 1st partial face transplant. 2008: First full face transplant.

Question 93

What are some, other than transplant surgery, modern surgical methods?

Answer 93

Keyhole surgery: smaller cuts. Radiation therapy: radiation to kill cancer cells. Laser surgery: treat a variety of skin condtions.

Question 94

What were the reports of Booth and Rowntree?

Answer 94

30% of the population couldn't afford money despite working a full time job. 28% didn't have the minimum amount of money to live on at some point of their lives.

Question 95

In 1906, the Liberal Party won the general election and took action, what did they do, a timeline?

Answer 95

1906: free school meals for the poor children. 1907: School medical service set up, free treatments and inspections. 1908: Children and Young Person Act, to protect children from law breaking parents. 1908: national taxes paid for old age pensions. 1909: Britain's first job centres built. 1911: National Insurance Act, unemployed benefits, free medical treatment and sickness pay.

Question 96

What did the Beveridge report in 1942 lead to?

Answer 96

It was a report suggesting ways to improve the quality of life and that it was the governments responsibility. And created welfare states and the NHS.

Question 97

How did the NHS develop?

Answer 97

Introduced in 1942 by Aneurin Bevan (Labour Minister of Health), firstly got a lot of hate because doctors didn't want to lose wages and work under the government. He promised them a wage and private pateints and it grew.

Question 98

What was the welfare state?

Answer 98

Poor recieved financial help, better hosuing was built, a weekly family allowance helped with childcare costs.

Question 99

What is healthcare like in the 21st century?

Answer 99

modern drugs are expensive and results in an older population, healthy eating campaigns are set up to help people, technological breakthroughs continue to improve the health of people, initiatives have developed so detecting early cancer is possible.