Health and the People c1000 - Present Flashcards

Question

Why was the Black Death so deadly?

Answer 1

It was a combination of three plagues: Bubonic, Pneumonic, and Septacemic.

Answer 2

Miasma, imbalance of humours, witchcraft, god sent the plague as a punishment, minority groups such as Jews were blamed for poisoning water supplies.

Answer 3

Flagellants whipped themselves to repent, pray for forgiveness, bloodletting, carry sweet smelling herbs.

Answer 4

The idea was that clouds of bad smells would travel causing illness.

Answer 5

Up to half of the population of Europe was killed, demand for labor increased which improved wages and peasant autonomy. There was a focus on finding out what caused the Black Death and how it could be cured, but when the plague broke out again in 1665 (Great Plague) there had been little progress as the same ideas were used.

Answer 6

Rats carried the disease, fleas would bite the rats, and once the rat died, the fleas would bite humans mixing infected blood from the rat with the humans.

Answer 7

A period of history which focused on reverting back to the ancient Greek and Roman ideas of focusing on challenging existing ideas and basing new ideas on science not supernatural beliefs.

Answer 8

Ancient ideas were revisited and individuals began focusing on science helping medicine develop. The printing press was created in 1440 by Johannes Guttenberg allowed books on medicine to be printed and communicated faster. The microscope was created in 1590.

Answer 9

A Belgian physician who specialised in anatomy, he carried out dissections on human bodies.Vesalius is best known for his book On the Fabric of the Human Body (1543) which showed incredibly accurate drawings of human anatomy. Vesalius' research also proved that Galen had made mistakes e.g. the human jaw bone was actually made of one bone not two.

Answer 10

Short term - proved Galen's ideas about anatomy were incorrect, which encouraged others to challenge existing ideas and theories. Long term - The accuracy of his On the Fabric of the Human body influenced surgeons to develop new operations and others to challenge Galen and the Church.

Answer 11

He was a French surgeon who had worked for the French Kings but also as a barber surgeon in the French army. He revolutionised the treatment for gunshot wounds. By chance Paré had ran out of hot oil and could no longer cauterise the wounds with hot oil. He remembered an old remedy (egg yolk, rose oil, and turpentine) and used this to soothe the wound. It was incredibly successful and LUCKY!

Answer 12

Paré used ligatures to tie blood vessels and stop patients dying from blood loss. However he was did not know about Germ Theory so surgeons often had dirty hands leading to infection then death. Paré also designed some of the first artificial limbs to help amputees.

Answer 13

In the short term, Paré showed that new methods, such as his ointment, could be more successful than ideas that had been followed for centuries. He wrote about his ideas in several books, including Treatise on Surgery in 1564. In the longer term, ligatures would be useful. However, fully implementing them required the discovery of germ theory (by Louis Pasteur) and carbolic acid (by Joseph Lister). This allowed ligatures to be properly sterilised and used with a lower risk of infection.

Answer 14

An English Doctor who studied at Padua university where Vesalius had carried out his dissections. Harvey returned to England and inspired by Vesalius set about challenging Galen. Galen stated that blood was a fuel burned up by the body and created in the liver. Harvey proved that Galen was wrong again.

Answer 15

By dissecting frogs (due to their slow pulse rate) he showed that blood was pumped around the body by the heart. He also discovered that veins and arteries have valves which make sure blood only flows one way. Harvey published a book in 1628 called An Anatomical Account of the Motion of the Heart and Blood. His high profile as physician to the king helped Harvey’s work to be widely shared.

Answer 16

Short term - Harvey’s work was important as it was another example (after Vesalius) of Galen’s work being proved to be incorrect. This encouraged other doctors to continue to question and challenge ancient ideas.The idea of circulation also led to doctors attempting blood transfusions from animals to humans. These were unsuccessful, as blood groups had not yet been discovered. Long term - Harvey’s work was significant in the development of successful blood transfusions. When Karl Landsteiner discovered blood groups in 1901, blood transfusions became possible.

Answer 17

1665 (The Great Plague)

Answer 18

All ships arriving in London had to quarantine. If household contained a plague victim the people were locked inside and a red cross painted on the door. All cats and dogs in London were to be killed as the mayor thought they had caused the plague (the plague actually spread quicker as there was nothing to kill the rats).

Answer 19

People still strongly believed in miasma, the four humours and God being responsible for disease. Despite some key individuals making progress, it was a minority movement not a majority.

Answer 20

Bloodletting and purging were still used showing the significance of the four humours and lack of medical development. However, some physicians noticed that the plague spread quicker in dirtier places and watchmen were prevented people from entering and leaving infected houses.

Answer 21

More people died during the Black Death and this was in part due to the government taking action and trying to prevent it from spreading (despite lack of knowledge). The Great Fire of London did not end the plague, but it did mean London had to be rebuilt and the new city had no open sewers in the streets and buildings were more spread out to reduce overcrowding and waste.

Answer 22

There was an increasing number of hospitals in the 17th and 18th centuries. The monasteries had been closed down by Henry VIII in the 1530s, so towns needed to open hospitals to take their place. St Bartholomew’s Hospital in London had been a monastery. However, Henry VIII allowed the hospital part of the building to be taken on by the London authorities.

Answer 23

As most people could not afford a physician, they had to look elsewhere for medical advice and treatments. Quack doctors were unqualified and often claimed to be selling miracle cures. They sold potions that supposedly contained all kinds of mysterious ingredients, such as crushed unicorn horn. These remedies did nothing to help people recover, and in some cases could make symptoms worse. However, until Pasteur’s germ theory, there was a lack of scientific knowledge to challenge these ideas.

Answer 24

A Scottish Surgeon who was keen to develop more scientific methods in researching medicine. For example, he carried out an experiment to prove his belief that syphilis and gonorrhoea - infections caused by two different types of bacteria - were caused by the same disease. To do this, Hunter deliberately infected a patient with pus from a gonorrhoea patient, but he ended up infecting them with syphilis as well. Hunter believed that the most effective treatment for the diseases was to give the patient mercury - a chemical element that is highly poisonous.

Answer 25

Hunter had a particular interest in anatomy. Over his career, he amassed a huge collection of animal and human skeletons, bones and body parts. He had over 14,000 items from more than 500 different species. Hunter encouraged other doctors to learn and study the anatomy of humans and animals, to increase their understanding of how the body works. In his time working with the army, Hunter disproved the idea that a gunshot injury poisoned the area around the wound. This had led to unnecessary treatments - for example, cutting out the area around a wound. Hunter’s army work and observations also led him to argue that amputation should only be carried out as a last resort. He experimented with various ways to try to save wounded limbs.

Answer 26

Short term - He was the surgeon to George III and was also surgeon general to the British army. As a prominent doctor and leading member of the Royal Society, Hunter was responsible for the training of other doctors. These included Edward Jenner, who went on to discover the smallpox vaccine. Long term - Hunter wrote several books, including The Natural History of the Human Teeth, A Treatise on the Venereal Disease and A Treatise on the Blood, Inflammation, and Gunshot Wounds. These helped other doctors to learn from Hunter’s scientific method. The Hunterian museum is owned and operated by the Royal College of Surgeons. It displays the collection Hunter built up throughout his career.

Answer 27

The procedure of deliberately infecting yourself with a disease in the hope that you will develop a resistance towards it. In 1718, Lady Mary Montagu, who was married to the British ambassador in Turkey, had her son inoculated against smallpox. On her return to England, she promoted inoculation and the procedure became widely used. There were risks with inoculation. Someone might contract the full-blown disease when they were being inoculated, or they might not be given enough so they would not develop immunity.

Answer 28

Jenner was an English country doctor who had been taught by John Hunter. Jenner heard a rumour that milkmaids did not catch smallpox, as they had already been infected with cowpox. Jenner was responsible for creating the world's first vaccine.

Answer 29

In 1796, Jenner took cowpox pus from a milkmaid, Sarah Nelmes, and smeared it into a small cut in the arm of eight-year-old James Phipps. Phipps became mildly ill with cowpox. Next, Jenner gave Phipps pus from a smallpox victim and James did not become ill. Jenner had proved that cowpox gave people protection against smallpox. He called this procedure ‘vaccination’ after the Latin word for ‘cow’, vacca. However, Jenner had no knowledge of germs and could not prove why his vaccine worked.

Answer 30

Despite its effectiveness in protecting people against smallpox, there was significant opposition to Jenner’s vaccine. Some members of the Church believed that disease was sent by God, so the vaccine interfered with God’s will. The vaccine worked by giving people an animal disease. Some people felt that this was not safe and that vaccinated people would grow horns. Jenner did not know about germs. Because of this, he could not fully explain how his vaccine worked.

Answer 31

Short term - Jenner’s vaccine meant people could be protected against a deadly disease. Long term - Jenner’s work encouraged research to find other vaccines. This became possible after Louis Pasteur discovered germ theory in 1853. In 1967, the World Health Organisation launched a plan to try to eradicate smallpox. In 1980, they announced that their goal had been achieved.

Answer 32

Pain Infection Blood Loss These issues meant surgery had to be quick. There were also high mortality (death) rates, as many patients died of infection even if they survived the operation.

Answer 33

Nitrous Oxide Ether Chloroform

Answer 34

In 1799, British surgeon Humphry Davy discovered that nitrous oxide worked as an effective local anaesthetic. He gave it the name ‘laughing gas’ and wrote about its potential in surgery. However, it did not become widely used until after Davy had died. Horace Wells was an American surgeon and used nitrous oxide in a public demonstration to remove a tooth. Unfortunately, the patient wasn’t given enough of the gas. As a result, they made a noise during the procedure, which convinced people it didn’t work.

Answer 35

Horace Wells worked with another surgeon, William Morton. Morton experimented with using ether as an anaesthetic. It worked effectively in preventing patients from feeling pain and quickly became widely used by surgeons in England. However, there were problems with ether. It was flammable, which meant it needed to be carefully stored. Patients often complained of a sore throat or feeling sick after a procedure when they had been given ether.

Answer 36

James Simpson was a Scottish doctor. In 1847, he and some friends experimented with chloroform. He discovered that it was an effective general anaesthetic. Chloroform replaced ether as the most widely used anaesthetic. The discovery of chloroform meant patients were still during an operation and felt no pain. This meant surgeons could start to consider more complex operations.

Answer 37

Some people in the Church argued that pain in childbirth was sent by God, so using anaesthetics for women in labour was interfering with God’s will. When not used carefully, anaesthetics could be dangerous. Hannah Greener was a 15-year-old girl who died during a procedure to remove an ingrown toenail because she was given too much chloroform. The British army banned the use of chloroform. Some army surgeons argued that patients being awake and in pain helped them to understand how the patient was feeling.

Answer 38

He devised a chloroform inhaler in the 1850s. Before the inhaler, chloroform had been poured onto a cloth and placed over the patient’s mouth and nose. The inhaler made it possible for doctors to control the amount of chloroform a patient was given. This made the use of anaesthetics safer. The inhaler mixed chloroform with water vapour, so the patient could breathe it in. In 1853, when giving birth to her eighth child, Queen Victoria used chloroform. Her doctor was John Snow and she later spoke of that ‘blessed chloroform’ in easing the pain of childbirth. This gave the public reassurance that chloroform was safe and effective.

Answer 39

Doctors were aware that germs existed in the late 17th century. However, there was not a belief that germs caused disease. People believed in spontaneous generation. This led to the belief that germs, which appeared at the site of disease or illness, were a consequence of the illness rather than the cause of the illness.

Answer 40

That diseases spread by contact with infected people or objects. (Snow, Pasteur, and Koch).

Answer 41

That diseases were caused by miasma (bad air) and spread through the environment, not person-to-person. (Florence Nightingale)

Answer 42

Louis Pasteur was a French chemist. In the 1850s, he was asked by a French winemaker to investigate why their wine was going off. Pasteur used a microscope to see that there were bacteria -a type of microbe -in the wine. He believed this was what was making it go off. He successfully heated the wine to kill the bacteria.

Answer 43

Pasteur carried out further experiments to prove his theory. He put some broth in two swan neck flasks and boiled it, which killed any microbes that were already there. He then broke the neck off one of the flasks. The flask that was exposed to the air went bad, but the sealed flask did not. This further proved Pasteur’s theory that microbes were in the air and caused disease in humans. In 1861 Pasteur published his work on germ theory. This was a hugely significant moment. It allowed further advances to take place in vaccines, surgery and antibiotics.

Answer 44

In 1879, Pasteur was working with his assistant, Charles Chamberland, to try to find a cure for chicken cholera. They were injecting chickens with cholera germs and then trying to cure them. On returning from holiday, Chamberland injected a chicken with cholera germs. It did not become ill. Pasteur told Chamberland to try again with fresh germs but the chicken still did not become ill. Pasteur realised that the old germs had caused the chicken to develop immunity to cholera. This meant that he and Chamberland had discovered a vaccine by chance. This would lead to further vaccines quickly being discovered (eg for anthrax and rabies). Unlike Jenner, Pasteur understood why his vaccine had worked, so he could replicate the process for other diseases.

Answer 45

Robert Koch was a German doctor. He used industrial dyes to stain bacteria. This made them easier to identify when viewed under a microscope. In 1876, he identified the germ that causes anthrax. This was the first time the bacteria responsible for a specific disease had been identified. Identifying specific bacteria was crucial in being able to develop effective treatments and vaccines.

Answer 46

Pastuer (French) and Koch's (German) rivalry was intensified during the Franco-Prussian war of 1871. They both also wanted to be show their nations scientific superiority. Their rivalry actually led to significant advances in medicine.

Answer 47

Technology - Koch’s assistant, Julius Richard Petri, invented the Petri dish.This enabled Koch to grow bacteria. He could then use industrial dyes to stain the bacteria. Finally, he could use powerful microscopes to identify the bacteria. Chance - Pasteur developed the chicken cholera vaccine when he left some cholera germs unrefrigerated before going on holiday. When his assistant, Charles Chamberland, injected these germs into a chicken on their return, the chicken did not become ill. Pasteur realised that the old germs had given the chicken immunity without making it ill. War - In 1870-1871, France and Germany were fighting each other in the Franco-Prussian War. This led to rivalry between Pasteur and Koch. Their respective governments invested in their research to show they had more advanced science and for national pride. Key individuals - Pasteur and Koch are both significant figures in the fight against disease. Their work relied on careful observation, scientific experiments, and years of work to develop new methods and treatments.

Answer 48

Lister was a Scottish surgeon, who after the discovery of germ theory was able to develop an antiseptic to improve surgery.

Answer 49

He experimented using a chemical, carbolic acid, to soak bandages before applying them to a wound. He found that it prevented infection and helped wounds to heal. Carbolic acid spray started to be used widely in surgery. It would be sprayed from a pump at the side of the operating table. This sterilised the air and equipment being used in the surgery. Carbolic acid was hugely effective. Lister reported that mortality rates in his surgery fell from 40 per cent before its use to 15 per cent afterwards he started using it. This was a huge step forward in making surgery safer.

Answer 50

Not all surgeons approved of the use of carbolic acid in surgery. Some surgeons complained that the acid irritated their eyes and hands, making it difficult to carry out delicate surgery. Instruments and equipment were soaked in the acid, making them slippery. Some surgeons found the machine spraying the acid was getting in the way and making it more difficult for them to concentrate.

Answer 51

Further improvements were made to deal with the problems with carbolic acid. An American surgeon, William Halsted, asked a tyre company to make rubber gloves for him to wear during operations. Halsted came up with the idea after speaking to a nurse who had suffered from dry skin on her hands due to the use of carbolic spray. The use of gloves helped to make surgery cleaner and therefore safer. Halsted went on to encourage aseptic surgery. The aim was to sterilise equipment and hands, so there were no germs that could cause infection during an operation. This meant there was no need for carbolic acid to be

Answer 52

The final major barrier to more complex surgery was blood loss. This problem was solved in 1901 when Karl Landsteiner discovered blood groups. This meant that blood transfusions could now successfully be carried out. As a result, longer operations were made safer.

Answer 53

John Tyndall John Tyndall was an English scientist. He carried out an experiment where he placed items such as meat and fish in a wooden chamber that had sterile air in it. None of the items went off when he did this. When he put the items in non-sterile air, they went bad. This experiment helped Tyndall to prove that the idea of spontaneous generation was wrong. He had shown that microbes in the air made things go off and caused disease.Tyndall shared his findings with Pasteur and helped to persuade people that germ theory explained how disease was caused. William Roberts William Roberts was a Welsh physician. In the 1870s, he carried out a series of experiments to prove that the idea of spontaneous generation was wrong. Roberts also spoke out in favour of Lister’s carbolic spray. He argued that it protected people from becoming seriously ill from infected wounds following surgery, when wounds were exposed to germs in the air. William Cheyne William Cheyne was a Scottish surgeon who worked alongside Lister. Seeing the effectiveness of Lister’s carbolic acid showed Cheyne that preventing infection in surgery would save many lives. He also studied the work of Robert Koch and translated it into English. This was important in enabling Koch’s work to be widely shared and understood by doctors in England. Cheyne went on to write books on the use of antiseptics in surgery. He also further promoted the work and research of Koch.

Answer 54

From 1750, there was a movement of people from rural to urban areas due to the Industrial Revolution. Goods were being made in factories powered by steam, instead of in peoples’ homes. People needed to move to where there was work, and this was in the new factories in urban areas. This led to towns and cities growing quickly in size. London grew from a population of 1 million in 1801, to 5.5 million in 1901.

Answer 55

Factory owners often built cheap houses for their workers. Back-to-back terraced housing was common, with families living in a single room. There was a lack of clean running water, proper sanitation and sewage systems. Toilets were normally shared between several houses. Water came from pumps in the street with water supplied from a river that was often heavily polluted. Cracked pipes could also lead to contamination of the water with human waste from cesspits. If there was an outbreak of a disease, it would spread rapidly due to overcrowding and poor sanitation.

Answer 56

Cholera first arrived in England in 1831 and caused an outbreak that killed around 50,000 people. It was spread by contaminated water or food. It caused diarrhoea and vomiting, which often led to severe dehydration and death. There were further cholera epidemics in 1848, 1854 and 1866. Typhoid was also spread by contaminated food or water. It caused a high temperature and fatigue, and could also be fatal.

Answer 57

Edwin Chadwick was a lawyer who wanted to reform the conditions poor people lived in. He carried out research into the living conditions in different parts of the country. This work was put together in his Report on the Sanitary Conditions of the Labouring Population of Great Britain in 1842. The report highlighted the impact of public health conditions and wealth on life expectancy. Chadwick found that labourers who lived in northern towns and cities, such as Bolton, Liverpool and Manchester, had a life expectancy of just 15-19 years. In contrast, people living in rural northern areas, such as Rutland, and who worked in a professional trade had a life expectancy of 52 years.

Answer 58

The government held a laissez-faire (leave alone ) attitude and people were beginning to think they needed to become involved in public health. However, many people accepted this laissez-faire attitude and did not want the government interfering in their lives.

Answer 59

In 1848, the government responded to Chadwick’s report and passed a Public Health Act. The act set up a Central Board of Health to oversee the improvement of public health. This meant that: Local authorities could set up a local board of health to oversee public health. If an area had a mortality rate higher than 23 per 1,000 people, the local authority had to set up a board. The local board of health could then raise taxes to pay for clean water supplies and new sewerage systems. The act was limited in that there was little funding and the local boards of health were usually not compulsory. However, it was an important first step in the government taking action to improve public health.

Answer 60

John Snow was a physician who was working in London during the cholera outbreak in 1854. He did not believe miasma theory was responsible for the outbreak of cholera in 1854. Therefore, he carried out an investigation to try to establish the cause of the outbreak.

Answer 61

Snow focused on cholera cases in Soho, London. He mapped out all the places where people had died from cholera and worked out they had all drank water from the Broad Steet water pump. Snow believed the water pump had been infected by a cesspit and persuaded the local council to remove the handle from the water pump. Cholera stopped spreading in the area and Snow proved cholera was a waterborne disease.

Answer 62

Short term - Snow’s investigation proved that cholera was a waterborne disease. This was an important step forward in disproving the miasma theory. However, Snow could not explain that there were germs in the water that were causing the illness. Long term - It was not until Louis Pasteur’s germ theory that there was evidence to further support Snow’s work.This then led to further public health reforms. Action was taken to provide people across the country with a clean water supply.

Answer 63

The summer of 1858 was warm and dry. As a result, the water level of the River Thames dropped. This meant the sewage and waste that were being dumped in the river were no longer being quickly washed away. The resulting smell was awful and became such a problem that the Houses of Parliament were closed. Miasma theory was still widely believed. As a result, people cleaned the walls of their homes with chloride of lime to take away the smell.

Answer 64

As a result of the Great Stink, the government invested in the construction of a new sewerage system for London. This was designed by Joseph Bazalgette. The new system was designed in 1858 and completed in 1875. The system was built in response to the Great Stink. However, it also resulted in the end of significant cholera outbreaks in London.

Answer 65

In 1875, Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli’s government passed a second Public Health Act. This went further than the act of 1848. It said that local authorities had to provide clean water supplies, build sewerage systems and appoint a medical officer. This marked a move away from a laissez-faire attitude. Disraeli introduced further reforms in 1875-1876: The 1875 Artisans’ and Labourers’ Dwellings Improvement Act brought in new standards for housing quality. The 1875 Sale of Food and Drugs Act tightened laws around food labelling. The 1876 Rivers Pollution Prevention Act aimed to clean up rivers and the water supply.

Answer 66

A social reformer who wanted to investigate the levels of poverty in London.

Answer 67

Booth found that 35 per cent of people lived in extreme poverty, even though many of them had full-time jobs. This number was much higher than people had previously believed. It showed that despite the reforms of public health in 1875-1876, more still needed to be done.

Answer 68

Following Louis Pasteur’s germ theory and Robert Koch’s work on identifying specific bacteria, researchers began to find ways of killing germs inside the body without harming healthy human tissue. This idea was called a ‘magic bullet’.

Answer 69

Paul Ehrlich had worked with Koch on research using industrial dyes to stain bacteria to make them easier to identify. Ehrlich wanted to take this idea further. He had a theory that some chemicals might be able to kill specific germs without harming healthy human tissue. A photograph of Paul Ehrlich and Sahachiro Hata at work Ehrlich investigated chemicals that would kill syphilis germs without harming human cells. He tested various substances by infecting rabbits with syphilis, then giving them a chemical to see whether the rabbit would be cured without the medication making them ill. Ehrlich and his assistant, the Japanese bacteriologist Sahachiro Hata, tried hundreds of different compounds. Eventually, when retesting some of the chemicals they had already tried, Hata discovered that the compound salvarsan was effective. As it was the 606th compound they had tried, it was named Salvarsan 606. After successful human trials, Salvarsan 606 was made available. It was the first magic bullet - a chemical that could cure people of syphilis

Answer 70

Salvarsan 606 was a key breakthrough. It led to research into other chemicals that might be magic bullets. In 1935, Gerhard Domagk discovered Prontosil - an antibacterial drug - which became the second magic bullet. Prontosil killed a type of bacteria known as streptococcal, which could cause life-threatening infections. The discovery of magic bullets by Ehrlich’s research team also led to work on finding natural substances that could target infections in the body. This work led to the discovery and development of penicillin.

Answer 71

Alexander Fleming was a Scottish doctor who worked for most of his career at St Mary’s Hospital in London. In 1928, he went on holiday while researching Staphylococcus bacteria. When he tidied his laboratory after his holiday, he discovered that a mould had grown on one of his Petri dishes. The bacteria around the mould had gone. When he investigated the mould, Fleming realised it was Penicillium fungi. He researched further and discovered that it killed Staphylococcus bacteria. He wrote about his findings in a medical journal.

Answer 72

Howard Florey and Ernst Chain were researchers at the University of Oxford. In 1935, they used Fleming’s work as a basis for trying to purify penicillin so it could be given as a medicine. By 1941, they had managed to achieve this and were ready for a human trial.

Answer 73

During World War One, there were many injuries caused by shrapnel, machine guns and shell fire. Millions of soldiers were injured, meaning surgeons had the opportunity to develop new methods and treatments.

Answer 74

Harold Gillies Harold Gillies was a New Zealand doctor. During World War One, he joined the army as a surgeon with the British army. He initially worked on the front line. However, in 1917 he set up a ward at Queen Mary’s Hospital, Sidcup, in London, to treat patients with facial injuries. Gillies pioneered new skin graft techniques. In one technique, he moved a patch of skin on the face, called a pedicle. He left the veins attached to it, so it still had a blood supply and could successfully be attached to a different part of the face. Francis Derwent Wood Francis Derwent Wood was a sculptor. He worked in hospitals in England treating injured soldiers. He designed and made lifelike facial masks for soldiers who had suffered severe facial injuries. This helped them to regain confidence, supported their mental health and aided their reintegration into normal life.

Answer 75

Blood transfusions - Since Karl Landsteiner had discovered blood groups in 1901, blood transfusions had been possible. However, blood could not be stored. During World War One, sodium citrate was added to packages of blood. This stopped it from clotting straight away and meant blood could be stored for a short period of time. X-rays - Marie Curie and her husband Pierre's scientific research was crucial in the development of X-rays for use in surgery. The X-ray machine was invented in 1895 before the start of World War One. During World War One, mobile X-ray units were available. Marie Curie played a vital role in getting 200 X-ray units into field hospitals along with 20 mobile X-ray vehicles, which the French troops nicknamed petites Curies which translates to 'little Curies'. This meant surgeons could see what internal injuries a patient had, meaning surgery could be better planned and was safer. Amputation and the use of prosthetic limbs - The nature of injuries suffered in World War One meant thousands of soldiers had limbs amputated. New and more sophisticated artificial - prosthetic - limbs were designed. A company in London that made industrial and electric tools began to manufacture a new prosthetic leg made of metal. This was lighter and easier to manoeuvre.

Answer 76

Charles Booth After the 1875 Public Health Act and other reforms, there was a feeling public health problems had been dealt with. However, a social researcher and reformer, named Charles Booth, conducted a piece of research in 1889. This showed that 35 per cent of London’s population lived in ‘absolute poverty’. Seebohm Rowntree Seebohm Rowntree, who was also a philanthropist and social reformer, conducted an investigation in York in 1900. He found that people needed to be earning 21 shillings a week, equivalent to £125 in 2021, to stay out of poverty. He came up with the term ‘poverty line’ for people earning less than this amount. 1867 Reform Act The 1867 Reform Act had given the vote to more working-class men. In the 1900 general election, the Labour Party entered candidates for the first time and won two seats in Parliament. In 1906, they increased the number of seats they held to 29. The Liberal Party won the election in 1906 but wanted to ensure the Labour Party didn’t gain more seats in the future. The Liberal Party saw their own reforms as a way of maintaining the support of working-class voters. Second Boer War The Second Boer War had also shown there was a problem with public health. In 1899, at the start of the war, one in three of the men who volunteered to fight were unfit to be recruited for health reasons. The government needed to take action to improve the health of the people.

Answer 77

In 1906, free school meals were introduced to improve the health of children. In 1907, schools began medical inspections of their pupils. In 1908, the Old Age Pensions Act was introduced. Eligible people, who were also over 70 years old with an annual income of less than 21 pounds per year, received a pension of five shillings per week. People who earned over 21 pounds per year or were married received a smaller amount. Anyone who earned over 31 pounds and 10 shillings per year received no pension. in 1909, the Labour Exchanges Act was brought in. Labour exchanges were similar to job centres today. Their aim was to match up employers and employees in 1911, the National Insurance Act came in. This set up a system where workers had a sum of money deducted from their wages to pay for health care and sick pay if needed

Answer 78

Some people argued that the Liberal reforms did not go far enough. The Labour Party said more should be done to help women, who were less likely to benefit from National Insurance. They also argued that old age pension payments should be higher. Some Conservative Members of Parliament said that giving people too much from the state would make them dependent on being given aid and support. They also thought it might reduce people’s desire to work. Additionally, there were concerns about the cost to taxpayers.

Answer 79

Archibald McIndoe was born in New Zealand and was a cousin of Harold Gillies. During World War Two, he worked with soldiers who had suffered severe facial injuries, especially from burns. McIndoe treated the physical injuries. He also supported soldiers who had difficulties with their mental health as a result of severe disfigurement from physical injuries. McIndoe’s patients formed a support network known as the Guinea Pig Club. The club organised social events. It also helped recovering soldiers adapt to civilian life and learn to live with their injuries. The club became well known and was visited by the war-time prime minister, Winston Churchill. Blood transfusions Charles Drew was an American surgeon. He came up with new methods to store and transport blood. When World War Two began, Drew was put in charge of a campaign called Blood for Britain. This involved US civilians donating blood, which was transported to Britain using Drew’s techniques. It was then used to treat injured British civilians and soldiers in blood transfusions.

Answer 80

When World War Two broke out, Florey and Chain travelled to America and were given $3 million in funding by the US government. They found a way to grow and mass produce purified penicillin. The US government paid for enough penicillin to be produced that every American soldier injured on D-Day could be given penicillin. After World War Two, new methods were developed. These meant people could routinely be given antibiotics to deal with infection.

Answer 81

In 1942, William Beveridge, a Liberal politician and social reformer, wrote a report called Social Insurance and Allied Services. It became known as the Beveridge Report. He recommended that the government should act to deal with what he called the ‘five giants’. The five giants of social welfare in 1942 Britain were: idleness, ignorance, disease, want and squalor These were: idleness - caused by a lack of employment opportunities ignorance - caused by people lacking a good education disease - caused by unaffordable health care squalor - caused by poor-quality housing want - caused by poverty Beveridge wanted the government to provide ‘cradle-to-grave’ social security and ultimately led to the creation of the NHS.

Answer 82

After World War Two, Winston Churchill lost the general election in 1945 to Clement Attlee and the Labour Party. Aneurin Bevan then became Minister of Health. He organised the founding of the NHS based on the principles of the Beveridge Report.

Answer 83

There was opposition to the NHS from multiple groups: The General Medical Council, which represented doctors, was concerned that doctors would be employees of the government. They worried that doctors would lose their independence and receive less pay. Some politicians argued that the cost of the NHS would be too great and taxpayers should not have to pay.

Answer 84

The NHS started treating patients in 1948. The first patient was 13-year-old Sylvia Diggory, who was treated at Trafford General Hospital. For the first time, everyone in the country could receive free health care, regardless of income. This included eye tests, hearing tests, prescriptions and hospital care. To ensure the NHS could be fully staffed, nurses and domestic workers from the Caribbean and Ireland were employed and encouraged to come and work in hospitals in the UK. During the 1960s, NHS employees were also recruited from South Asia and Africa, as well as from the Caribbean.

Answer 85

Bevan strongly believed that the NHS should provide free health care for all, regardless of people’s income. The initial budget for the health service was £437 million per year - equivalent to around £15 billion in 2021. This was a significant cost, particularly at a time when Britain was heavily in debt following World War Two. Pressure on the NHS budget meant tough decisions needed to be made. In 1951, Bevan resigned from the government when charges for prescriptions were introduced to pay for the cost of the Korean War.

Answer 86

Rosalind Franklin was an English researcher and an expert in the use of X-rays. During the 1950s, she used X-rays to take images of DNA. This work was crucial in enabling researchers to start to understand the structure and composition of DNA. In 1953, Francis Crick (a British researcher) and James Watson (an American geneticist) built on the earlier work done by Franklin. They were able to discover the double helix structure of DNA. They wrote about their findings in the medical journal Nature. The discovery of DNA’s structure was significant in helping researchers to understand the causes of some diseases. It also allowed a new field of medicine to evolve. This field focused on developing treatments based on the structure and make-up of people’s DNA.

Answer 87

In 1967, Christiaan Barnard, a South African cardiac surgeon, carried out the world’s first heart transplant. In 2005, a partial face transplant was completed for the first time in France. In 2010, the first full face transplant was carried out in Spain. Laser surgery has a wide range of uses, including eye surgery, cancer treatments and control of bleeding. Keyhole surgery uses microscopic cameras. With this technique, operations take place with just a small cut to allow the cameras to be inserted and the procedure to be completed. This reduces the risk of infection and speeds up recovery times.

Answer 88

The use of in vitro fertilisation (IVF) led to the birth of Louise Brown in England in 1978. New vaccines have been developed. For example, the HPV (human papillomavirus) vaccine is now routinely offered to young people in Britain. This reduces their chance of developing certain cancers.

Answer 89

Acupuncture - using needles inserted into specific parts of the body to help with pain relief. Yoga - exercises and movements that are believed to help improve mental health and improve strength and flexibility. Hypnotherapy - using relaxation and focusing of thoughts to support people with mental health challenges or help them change their behaviour - for example, to help them stop smoking. Herbal remedies - people take herbs to help with a range of medical issues, including mental health challenges, pain or a low immune system

Answer 90

New medicines and treatments are constantly being developed. The NHS runs public health campaigns to try to encourage people to lead healthier lives. For example, it encourages people to: Stop smoking Eat healthily Practise safe sex Get vaccinated (eg the flu vaccines) The NHS faces ongoing challenges regarding the cost of new treatments. Decisions have to be made about which medications and services can be paid for by the NHS and which cannot.

Answer 91

An international project to map all human genes, completed in 2003.

Health and the People c1000 - Present Flashcards

(115 cards)