health psychology Flashcards
(207 cards)
1
Q
what is personality?
A
characteristics that make up a person such as, introversion/ extroversion, funny, boring
2
Q
the hardy personality (commitment)
A
hardy people have strong sense of purpose and throw themselves into tasks and projects.
3
Q
the hardy people (challenge)
A
hardy people welcome change and see it as an opportunity for development
4
Q
hardy people (control)
A
hardy people like to take control of situations don’t like to go with the flow
5
Q
the hardy personality
A
kobasa (1979) believed that hardiness can protect against stress and therefore ill health the hardy people involves the 3Cs (commitment, challenge and control)
6
Q
type A personality
A
the scientific interest in the link between personality, stress and illness
7
Q
Friedman and Roseman (1959)
A
found that coronary heart disease might be associated with patterns of behavior. They later described personality as Type A and B.
8
Q
What is the theory of planned behaviour?
A
a cognitive theory by Azjen (1985) which proposes that individuals decide to engage in specific behaviour, such as gambling, can be predicted by their intention to engage in behaviour.
9
Q
What are subjective norms?
A
the perceived social pressures to perform or not perform the behaviour.
10
Q
intra-role conflict
A
when your role involves too many demands
11
Q
inner-role conflict
A
every person has multiple roles they must perform each week/month. all these have competing demands.
12
Q
what happens when a person feels stressed?
A
-heart rate
-fight or flight
-adrenaline released
-breathing faster
-shake
-sweaty
-pupils dilate
13
Q
cortisol
A
HPA system produces cortisol which helps the body metableise sugar for enough energy and makes us feel alert and responsive
14
Q
oxytoxin
A
female hormone that inhibits the fight or flight response
15
Q
Taylor (2006)
A
coined the tend or befriend reaction which is the females dont run away but tend to their offspring and befriend females therefore fight or flight response is biased towards females
16
Q
steps of CBT
A
step one: cognative prep- which helps the individual identify triggers for the stressors
step two: skill acquisition- teaching coping mechanisms to manage stress
step three: apply the skills to real life settings
17
Q
strengths of CBT
A
Sheely + Horan (2004) gave SIT to the univercity students who were stressed. Their stress was compared to a cg. they did better in exam.
18
Q
weakness of CBT
A
-it is demanding
-adaptive (hard to test effectiveness)
19
Q
biofeedback
A
phase 1: awareness and psyiological feedback, client is connected to a machine that shows psysiological activities
phase 2:relaxation training and control, client becomes aware of their responses and then gets trained to control of those responses.
20
Q
strength of biofeedback
A
research evidence that shows biofeedback can be effective (lemaire et al. 2011)
21
Q
weakness of biofeedback
A
-it is unsuitable for some people because it requires a lot of effort and motivation
-it does not give consistenly positive results
22
Q
what is mindfulness?
A
an approach to life which emphasises ‘being in the present’ and attending to thoughts, feelings and emotions in accepting and non-judgemental way. it involves mediative techneques structured into programs which can promote heath by, for example, managing stress and treating addictions.
23
Q
strengths of mindfulness
A
-it has been successufully applied very widely
-evidence support Wen Li et at. (2017) reviewed 34 studies testing the effectiveness of several programs for addiction.
24
Q
weakness of mindfulness
A
may have been overhyped . it has caught public imagination but, despite the points above, evidence is often inconclusive.
25
counselling
a goal-focused talking therapy that aims to increase a clients self-esteem through unconditional positive regard from a therapist who actively listens to the client.
26
guided self-help
a type of talking therapy based on cognitive behavioural therapy. the client works through materials, learning to use CBT techniques with occasional support from a mental health professional.
27
strength of counselling
it can be used to help a wide range of clients
28
weakness of counselling
lack of evidence support for effectivness
29
strength of guided self help
research studies show that GSH is effective.
30
weakness of guided self help
not all forms of GSH are equally effective or useful.
31
what is addiction
a mental health issue in which a person takes a behaviour that is pleasurable but eventually becomes compulsive with harmful consequences.
32
griffiths six components of addiction
1.phsical and psychological depedence
2.tolerance
3.withdrawal
4.relapse
5.conflict
6.mood alteration
33
what is genetic predisposition
the genes we inherit from our parents contribute to our health but do not demine it. this is because an individual does not inherit a gene for health or for an illness.
34
how does health influence health and illness
genes affect the likelihood we will engage in physical activity and therefore be healthier.
35
strengths of biological influences
-correcting neurotransmitter imbalances in a useful way to improve health
-another strength of genetic predisposition is that it includes a role for non-genetic factors.
36
weakness of biological influences
it oversimplifies the causes of heath
37
positive reinforcement
occurs when the consequences of a behaviour are rewarded. the reward reinforces the behaviour and makes it more likely to happen again.
38
negative reinforcement
occurs when avoidance of an unpleasant consequence of a behaviour is rewarded. this reinforces the behaviour and makes it more likely to recur.
39
using positive reinforcement
external feedback can provide positive reinforcement for most people e.g. praising someone for eating fruit and veg.
40
using negative reinforcement
using negative reinforcement is based upon avoidance of unpleasant outcomes. eating unhealthy foods might provoke guilt.
41
strengths of behaviourist approaches
-operant conditioning can encourage real-world healthy behaviours
-research evidence supporting the effects of reinforcement
42
weakness of behaviourist approaches
operant conditioning is only useful for a narrow range of healthy behaviours.
43
theory of planned behaviour
icek Ajzen (1991) formulated the theory of planned behaviour, changes in behaviour can be predicted from our intention to change which in turn is the outcome of personal attitudes towards the behaviour in question, our beliefs about what others think, and our perceived ability to control our behaviour.
44
intra-role conflict - role conflict
when an employee faces competing demands within their role in the workplace. often when roles are poorly defined and the employee has to report to two managers.
45
inter-role conflict- role conflict
when a person has two different roles with competing demands. in many cases one role is work-related and the other is outside the workplace.
46
hardiness
can protect against stress and ill health. there are 3 key concepts
-commitment
-challenge
-control
47
commitment- hardiness
hardy people are deeply involved in their relationships and their activities. they throw themselves into life and have a strong sense of purpose.
48
challenge- hardiness
hardy people are resilient and welcome challenge as an opportunity rather than as a threat. they recognise that life is unpredictable, but see this as exciting and stimulating.
49
control- hardiness
hardy people have a strong belief that they are in charge of events, that it is they who make things happen, rather than things happening to them.
50
type A personality
-ambitious
-motivated
-fast talking
-aggressive
51
type A stress
type As have a higher level of stress hormones adrenaline and noradrenaline. this suggests type As are more vunerable to stress.
52
type B stress
type Bs contrasts with type As. type Bs are more laid back than type As
53
strength of role of personality
-hardiness and type A both provide targets for reducing effects of stress.
54
weaknesses of role of personality
-unclear what hardiness and Type A personality really is.
-hardiness and type A are measured using self-report questionnaires
55
bodys response to stress (GAS)
Hans Selye (1936) experimented with rats, subjecting them to various stressors. he found that it didnt matter what the stressor was, the rats body responses were the same.
-alarm reaction
-resistance
-exhaustion
56
alarm reaction
when the threat or stressor is recognised, the hyothalamus in the brain triggers the production of adrenaline/noradrenaline in readiness for fight or flight.
57
resistance stage
when the threat/stressor ends, functioning returns to normal levels. however, the stressor continues, a longer-term stress response starts using up the the bodys resources.
58
exhaustion stage
the resources needed to resist the stressor are depleted. the individual begins to re-experience the initial symptoms.
59
acute tress: SAM system
controls the bodys immediate response to an acute stressor- the fight or flight response.
60
chronic stress: HPA
at the same time as the SAM system is activated, a slower response starts. the bodys response to chronic stress. the hypothalamic triggers the pituitary gland to release the hormone ACTH which in turn stimulates release of cortisol from the adrenaline cortex.
61
weaknesses of physiological responses to stress
-stress is also affected by non-physiological responses
-does not help us cope with modern day stressors
62
short-term effects of stress and ill-health
-headache
-stomach upset
-fatigue
-indirect effects
63
long-term effects of stress and ill-health
-hypertension
-heart attack
-stroke
-indirect effects
64
strength of stress and physical ill health
knowledge of stress can help us prevent and treat physical ill health
65
weaknesses of stress and physical ill health
-there are gender differences in how people respond to stressors
-it is too simplistic to divide stress responses into short-term and long-term.
66
biological explanation of smoking addiction- initiation
a person may start smoking because of biological factors related to nic
67
biological explanation of smoking addiction- genetic predisposition
genes may be a risk factor for nic addiction. if this is the case we would expect to find that smoking runs in families.
68
biological explanation of smoking addiction- dopamine receptors
nicotine addiction involves neurons in the area of the brain called the ventral tegmental area. these neurons have receptors on their surfaces which are activated by molecules of the neurotransmitter dopamine.
69
biological explanation of smoking addiction- maintenance and relapse - role of dopamine
nicotine dependence develops as a nicotine molecules continue to attach to receptors in the VTA and dopamine is released in the NA, producing more pleasure and reward.
70
strengths of the biological approach- smoking
-the practical benefits in helping people to stop smoking
-evidence supporting the biological approach explanation of smoking addiction
71
weakness of the biological approach- smoking
- evidance is not everyone who starts to smoke becomes dependant on nic
72
learning explanation of smoking addiction- initiation
-parental and peer role models- the origins of smoking lie in social learning
-positive reinforcement- a component of operant conditioning
73
learning explanation of smoking addiction- maintenance- neg reinforcement
another operant conditioning concept. smoking removes an unpleasant sensation.
74
learning explanation of smoking addiction- maintenance- positive reinforcement
smoking offers a positive feeling.
75
learning explanation of smoking addiction- maintenance- classical conditioning
sensations include the smell of the smoke, the catch at the back of the throat, cig between lips and fingers. these start as neutral stimulus. but after being pared with the pleasurable effects of smoking the become conditioned stimuli capable of triggering a response on their own, without delivering nic to the brain.
76
strengths of the learning approach to smoking approach
-has practical benefits to help people stop smoking.
-evidence support (carter and tiffany 1999)
77
weakness of the learning approach to smoking approach
-cannot explain all nic addiction
78
cognitive approach- alc addiction- mitigation for current issue
can be explained by early experiences of trauma. people who suffered from early trauma may be experiencing psychological disorders. they may use acl to mitigate (relieve) their symptoms.
79
cognitive approach- alc addiction- specific effects
because self-medication is used to manage negative emotional states the choice of drug is not random. alc has relaxing effects.
80
strengths of alc and the cognitive approach
-self medication model is that it can be used to help avoid addiction
-self-medication model is evidence confirming the role of early trauma
81
weakness of alc and cognitive approach
-a lack of evidence for the role of specificity
82
learning approach- alc-positive reinforcement- initiation
this may be direct or indirect. alc activates the brains dopamine reward system relatively quickly. alc molecules attach to dopamine receptors on neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA). dopamine is released in the nucleus accumbens (NA) this creates a feeling pleasure.
83
learning approach- alc- negative reinforcement- initiation
some people begin drinking alc as a way to escape stressful lives. avoidance of stress is a desirable consequence of drinking. this negatively reinforces the behaviour.
84
learning approach- alc- positive reinforcement- maintenance
drinking acl provides ongoing rewards which make drinking likely to be repeated. a related feature of maintenance is motivational toxicity.
85
strengths of alc and the learning approach
-opened several possibilities to treating alc addiction.
- evidence that negative reinforcement is an effective explanation of relapse
86
weakness of alc and the learning approach
-operant conditioning (reinforcement) may not be an effective explanation of alc addiction
87
health belief model
predicts the likely-hood of behaviour change.
1)seriousness
2)perceived susceptibility
3)cost benefit analysis
88
health belief model- seriousness
weather a person changes depends partly on how severe the consequences will be if they dont change
89
health belief model- perceived susceptibility
a persons belief on about their risk of developing a health issue
90
health belief model-cost benefit analysis
the perceived barriers might be the inconvinience.
91
strenths of the health belief model
-developing practical interventions to change health-related behaviours
-developed by health researchers and practitioners
92
weakness of the health belief model
-based on the assumption that people make rational decisions about their health behaviours.
93
external locus of control
a persons belief that their behaviour is a matter of luck or the influence of other people
94
internal locus of control
they believe they are responsible for what happens to them
95
strengths of locus of control
-locus of control and health is useful
-evidence support
96
weakness of locus of control
-health may be exaggerated
97
what are stressors?
a threat that causes stress
98
what is psychological stress?
the emotion you express when you are stressed
99
what is physiological stress
how the body psychically responds to stress
100
what is the health continuum
as the biomedical approach has been dominant, health and ill health have traditionally existed on a continuum and varies between two categories. you are either healthy or have ill health. this continuum has a less simplistic view
101
what is addiction?
a mental health condition in which a person takes a substance or engages in behaviour that is pleasurable but eventually becomes compulsive with harmful consequences.
102
what is behavioural addiction
occurs when someone compulsively continues a behaviour and experiences withdrawal symptoms when they stop it
103
what is relapse
reverting to an addiction after a period of giving up
104
what is tolerance
a decrease of response to a drug, so the addict need too take more so they feel the effect
105
what is withdrawal
a set of symptoms that develop when the addicted person stots or reduces their drug use
106
what are Griffiths six components of addiction
1. dependence
2. tolerance
3. withdrawal
4. relapse
5. conflict
6. mood altercation
107
what is genetic predisposition
genes we inherit from our parents that contribute to our health
108
genetic influences on health and ill health
genetics effect the likelihood we will engage in physical activity and therefore be healthier
109
what are neurotransmitters?
chemicals in the nervous system that transmit signals from one neuron to another across synapses
110
what are neurotransmitter imbalences-biological influences
for many reasons levels can become imbalanced, with various effects on behaviour depending on whether the levels are too high or too low
111
physical health and seritonin- biological influences
one reason why physical activity improves health through its effect on serotonin. serotonin is increased in several areas of the brain by both short, intense exercise.
112
mental health and neurotransmitters- biological influences
high levels of dopamine are associated with optimism. neurotransmitters imbalances have been linked to serious psychological disorder called schizophrenia.
113
strengths of biological influences
-correcting neurotransmitter imbalances us a useful way to improve health
-genetic predisposition is that it includes a role for non-genetic factors
114
weakness of the biological influences
-emphasising biological influences oversimplifes the causes of death
115
role of cues
healthy and unhealthy behaviours become associated with particular stimuli called cues. cues are important in healthy behaviours. during physical exercise, you might wear a particular item, of kit, which you associate with the pleasure of exercise. just seeing the kit might make you feel happier.
116
operant conditioning
a form of learning in which behaviour is learnt and maintained by its consequence
117
strengths of the behaviourst approach
-encourages real-world healthy behaviours
-there is research evidence
118
weakness of the behaviourist approach
-operant conditioning is only useful for a narrow range of healthy behaviours
119
vicarious reinforcement
when the observer witnesses a models behaviour and want to be them or get the same reward so they copy that behaviour.
120
what is the self-efficacy theory
refers to the belief we have ability to carry out an action or task. people with high efficacy believe they will be successful in accomplishing difficult tasks and therefore more motivated to do so. however, people with low efficacy levels will believe they will fail and therefore not be as motivated to the task than people with high self-efficacy.
121
what are mastery experiences
previous success increase self efficacy by raising our expectations for the future.
122
what is vicarious reinforcement
occurs when a learner observes a models behaviour being rewarded.
123
how does vicarious reinforcement affect self-efficacy
by watching someone else succeed in task and be reinforced (rewarded) will increase the self efficiency in the watcher.
124
what is social persuasion
direct encouragement from others will increase self-efficacy.
125
how does emotional states effect self-efficacy
stress, fear and anxiety can reduce self-efficacy. an example of this is if someone is new to the gym they maybe fearful or anxious about working out infront of other people.
126
strengths of the self-efficacy model
-theory provides a range of strategies to produce behaviour change.
-there is a large body of research supporting this theory.
127
weakness of the self-efficacy theory
-assumes that high self-efficacy is always positive
128
what is the transtheoretical model
a model created by Prochaska and DiClemente (1983) devised the transtheoretical model to explain behavioural changes to overcome addiction. this is in 5 stages.
-precontemplation
-contemplation
-preparation
-addiction
-maintenance
129
what is the first stage in the transtheoretical model
preconception- people in this stage are not thinking about change in their near future
130
what is the second stage in the transtheoretical model
contemplation- this is when people are considering changing their behaviour in the next six months
131
what is the third stage of the transtheoretical model
preparation- the person believes that the benefits of changing their behaviour out-weigh the costs. they decide to make change sometime within the next month
132
what is the fourth stage of the transtheoretical model
addiction- a person at this stage has done something to change their behaviour in the last six months.
133
what is the fifth stage of the transtheoretical model
maintenance- the person in this stage has changed their behaviour for more than six months now.
134
strengths of the transtheoretical model
-it it useful in real-world practice as it has a positive view on relapse
-the model view behaviour change as a dynamic process
135
weakness of the transtheoretical model
-there is little research into the stages of the model
136
what are life events
significant infrequent events in life that cause stress.
137
life events and ill-health
researchers have used the SRRS to find out if ill-health is associated with life-events. most of the studies conducted work out a total LCU score for each participant.
138
what is a daily hassle
a minor but frequent event in a persons life which may lead to stress
139
daily hassle and ill-health
daily hassle can threaten our health as we encounter so many of them. they can make us ill through their link with life events. a hassle is stressful as as we experience them directly.
140
strength of daily hassle and life events
-it has practical use as they are measured using self-report methods
-the roles of both life events and daily hassles are supported by many studies.
141
weakness of daily hassles and life events
-assessing life events and hassle involves retrospective recall.
142
what is intra-role conflict
when an employee faces competing demands within their role at the work place.
143
what is inter-role conflict
when an employee has two different roles within the work place within competing demands
144
what are the effects of the work environment
temp- hot workplaces are associated with negative outcomes which may include stress and aggressive behaviour. cold temps may lead to stress/distress
noise- noise can be unpleasant and can also prevent employees to do their best work
145
what is personality
patterns of thinking, feeling and behaving that differs among different people
146
personality and stress
your personality influences how you respond to stress.
147
what is hardiness
hardiness what proposed by Kobasa (1979) and stated that hardiness is a type of personality someone has. this can protect someone from a state of stress.
148
what are the 3 Cs of hardiness
-commitment- hardy people are deeply involved in their relationships and their activities. they throw themselves into life and have a strong sense of purpose.
-challenge- hardy people are resilient and welcome challenge
-control- hardy people have a strong sense of control. they may believe they are in charge of situations
149
what is the type A personality
type A people have competitiveness as they are ambitious, motivated by achievement. type A people often also have time urgency as they are fast talking, impatient and they view artistic and creative activities as a waste of time. they have hostility, they are aggressive and intolerant of others.
150
what is the general adaption syndrome (GAS)
bodily reaction to stress
151
3 stages of GAS
-alarm reaction, when the stressor is recognised, the hypothalamus in the brain triggers the production of adrenaline and noradrenaline
-resistance, when the stressor ends, functioning returns to normal levels and seems fine however, things are deteriorating.
-exhaustion, the reesources needed to resist the stressor are depleted. individual begins to have the initial symptoms
152
what is the SAM system
the bodys response to an acute stressor. the hypothalamus triggers they sympathetic nervous system which causes the adrenal medlla to release adrenaline and noradrenaline. this is the fight or flight response.
153
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) system
the bodys response to chronic stress. the hypothalamus triggers the pituitary gland to release the hormone ACTH which in turn stimulates the release of cortisol from the adrenal cortex.
154
weaknesses to the physiological responses to stress
-it is different for men and women.
-there is more to the acute response than the fight or flight.
-the physiological response does not help cope with many modern day stressors.
155
short-term effects of stress
-headache
-stomach upset
-fatigue
-indirect effects
156
long term effects of stress
-hypertension
-heart attack
-stroke
-indirect effects
157
strength of stress and physical ill health
-it has practical uses as the knowledge of stress can help us prevent and treat physical ill health.
158
weakness of stress and physical ill health
-there are gender differences in how people respond to stressors
-it is too simplistic to divide stress responses into short-term and long-term .
159
biological explanation to smoking
the biological approach can explain how people first take up smoking (initiation), how they continue to smoke (maintenance) and how they restart after a period of abstinence (relapse)
160
smoking: biological approach
initiation
a person may start smoking because of biological factors related to nic.
161
smoking: biological approach
genetic predisposition
genes may be a risk factor for nic addiction. if this is the case we would expect to find that smoking runs in families.(add in twin studies)
162
smoking: biological approach
dopamine receptors
nic addiction involves neurons in the area of the brain called the ventral tegmental area (VTA). these neurons have receptors on their surfaces which are activated by molecules. of the neurotransmitter dopamine.
163
smoking: biological approach
maintenance and relapse
role of dopamine
nic dependance develops as nic molecules cantinue to attach to receptors in the VTA and dopamine is released in the NA, producing more pleasure and reward. this pleasure reinforces the act of smoking.
164
smoking: biological approach
maintenance and relapse
nic regulation and withdrawal symptoms
if a smoker goes for too long without a cig, they start to experience withdrawal symptoms.
165
smoking: biological approach
maintenance and relapse
tolerance
over time, the constant stimulation of dopamine receptors reduces their sensitivity. the person has to smoke more in order to restimulate receptors to previous levels and achieve the sensations they used to get.
166
strengths to the biological approach to smoking
- the practical benifits in helping people to stop smoking
-evidence supporting the biological approaches explanation of smoking addictions.
167
weakness to the biological approach to smoking
-evidence is that not everyone who starts to smoke becomes dependent on nic.
168
learning explanation of smoking addiction
the learning approach uses a combination of classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social learning to explain smoking addiction
169
smoking: learning approach
initiation
parental and peer role models
the origins of smoking lie in social learning. typically, a child or adolescent observes parents?carers and peers smoking. this providing role models to imitate. the smoking model gets satisfaction from smoking. which is observed by the young person as vicarious reinforcement. this makes it more likely that the young person will start smoking.
170
smoking: learning approach
initiation
positive reinforcement
a component of operant conditioning, which states that if a consequence of a behaviour is desirable then it will be repeated. positive reinforcement refers to a pleasurable reward.
171
smoking: learning approach
maintenance
negative reinforcement
the consequence is still desirable but it involves an escape from something unpleasant.
172
smoking: learning approach
maintenance
classical reinforcement
the smoker learns an association between the sensations involved in smoking and and its pleasurable effects. these start as neutral stimulus. but after the pleasurable effects of smoking they become conditioned stimuli capable of triggering a response on their own, without delivering nic to the brain.
173
smoking: learning approach
relapse
conditioned cues
the pleasurable effect of smoking is called a primary reinforcer. it is rewarding in itself through its effects on brains dopamine reward system.
174
smoking: learning approach
relapse
self-efficacy
this refers to a persons confidence in their ability to stop smoking continue to abstain.
175
strengths of the learning approach and smoking
-it has practical benefits to help people stop smoking
-there is evidence to support the role of conditioned cues in nic addiction
176
weakness of the learning approach and smoking
-the learning approach is that it cannot explain all nic addictions.
177
self medication model of alcohol addiction
this explains the focus on how a person thinks about or percieves past traumatic experiences and current feelings of distress.
178
alcohol: cognitive approach
initiation
mitigation for current issue
addiction to alcohol and other drugs can be explained by early experiences of trauma. someone who was traumatised in childhood through abuse or neglect may well be currently experiencing a psychological disorder. the disorder may cause an individual to use drugs such as alcohol to mitigate their symptoms.
179
alcohol: cognitive approach
initiation
specific effects
because self-medication is used to manage negative emotional states, the choice of drug is not random.
180
alcohol: cognitive approach
maintenance
assumptions about managing the problem
a persons current distress means they are not in a position to look after themselves and they experience low self-esteem. they may lack the skills to cope with stress or to handle social situations.
181
alcohol: cognitive approach
maintenance
stress relief
the person cannot soothe themselves because of the their experience of trauma especially when they are stressed.
182
alcohol: cognitive approach
relapse
counterproductive
however, using alcohol to self-medicate is ultimately couterproductive and self-defeating. this is because alcohol relieves stress but the stressor is still present when effects of alcohol has worn off.
183
alcohol: cognitive approach
relapse
increase of stress level
a person dependant on alcohol who reduces or ceases their use will experience withdrawal symptoms which in terms creates more stress.
184
alcohol: cognitive approach
relapse
'solving' problem causes relapse
the risk at this point is that the stress of withdrawal added to the persons current stress makes their existence unbearable.
185
strengths of alcohol and the cognitive approach
-the self medication model can be used to help avoid addiction
-there is evidence confirming the role of early trauma
186
weakness of alcohol and the cognitive approach
-lack of evidence for the role specificity.
187
operant conditioning of alcohol addiction
the learning approach can explain initiation, maintenance and relapse alcohol addiction in terms of operant conditioning
188
alcohol: learning approach
initiation
positive reinforcement
this may be direct of indirect. alcohol activates the brains dopamine reward system relatively quickly. alcohol molecules attach to dopamine receptors on neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA). dopamine is released in an area called the nucleus accumbens (NA) and in frontal areas of the brain. this creates pleasure.
189
alcohol: cognitive approach
relapse
negative reinforcement
some people begin drinking alcohol as a way of escaping stressful lives. avoidance of stress is a desirable consequence of drinking, this negatively reinforces the behaviour.
190
alcohol: cognitive approach
maintenance
positive reinforcement
drinking alcohol provides ongoing rewards which make drinking likely to be repeated. a related feature of maintenance is motivated by toxicity. the rewards from drinking exceed those from previously rewarding activities.
191
alcohol: cognitive approach
maintenance
negative reinforcement
drinking is continued overtime to avoid or reduce withdrawal symptoms
192
alcohol: cognitive approach
relapse
negative reinforcement
the learning processes that iniciate and maintain drinking can also cause relapse when a drinker has stopped. as we have seen withdrawal symptoms can be unpleasant enough someone to give up drinking. at any point in the process of abstaining, the relief gained from drinking again can be strong enough to provoke a relapse.
193
strengths of the learning approach and alcohol
-the learning approach has opened up several possibilities for treating alcohol addiction
-evidence that negative reinforcement is an effective explanation of relapse
194
weakness of the learning approach and alcohol
operant conditioning may not be an effective explanation of alcohol addiction
195
expectancy theory of gambling addiction
the cognitive approach focuses on explanations about the way we think. in expectancy theory, the 'thinking' is the expectations people have about what will happen if they gamble
196
gambling: cognitive approach
initiation
cost-benefit analysis
an individual weighs up the balance between the perceived benefits of changing behaviour and the perceived barriers.
197
gambling: cognitive approach
maintenance
irrational thoughts
ideas and beliefs that do not have logical basis in reality
198
gambling: cognitive approach
maintenance
cognitive biases
a person who is addicted to gambling is biased towards perceiving favourable outcomes. an example is the 'near miss' bias. imagine someone bets on several horses to win their races, but they all come second or third.
199
gambling: cognitive approach
maintenance
illusions of control and exaggeration of ability
the mistaken belief of having a special ability to influence the operation of chance outcomes.
200
gambling: cognitive approach
relapse
recall bias and over stimation of success
someone who is addicted to gambling may believe they can influence a gambling outcome through their own skill or ability.
201
gambling: cognitive approach
strengths
-it can be used to avoid addiction
-there is evidence confirming the role of early trauma
202
gambling: cognitive approach
weakness
lack of evidence for the role of specificity
203
alcohol; learning approach
initiation
positive reinforcement
this may be direct or indirect. alcohol activates the brains dopamine reward system relatively quickly. alcohol molecules attach to dopamine receptors on neurons in the ventral tregmental area (VTA). dopamine is released in an area called the nucleus accumbens (NA)and in frontal areas of the brain. this causes a sensation of pleasure.
204
alcohol; learning approach
initiation
negative reinforcement
some people begin drinking to avoid stressful lives. this is disirable.
205
alcohol; learning approach
maintenance
positive reinforcement
drinking alcohol provides an ongoing rewards which makes drinking likely to be repeated.
206
alcohol; learning approach
maintenance
negative reinforcement
drinking is maintained over time to avoid or reduce withdrawal symptoms
207
