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Heart & Vessels Flashcards

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1
Q

Heart Anatomy & Structures

Aortic valve

A

The valve between the left ventricle (bottom chamber of the heart) and the aorta (big artery carrying blood to the body).
- Semilunar (SL) valve

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2
Q

Heart Location and Structure:

where is the heart located?

A

The heart is situated in the mediastinum, spanning from the 2nd to the 5th intercostal space.
- It stretches from the right edge of the sternum to the left midclavicular line.

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3
Q

Heart Location and Structure:

Can you describe the shape of the heart?

A

It’s often likened to an upside-down triangle.
- The base is at the top and
- the apex points downward and to the left.

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4
Q

Heart Location and Structure:

how many chambers does the heart have, & what are they called?

A

The heart has four chambers:
1. the right atrium (RA)
2. right ventricle (RV)
3. left atrium (LA)
4. and left ventricle (LV).

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5
Q

Heart Location and Structure:

what is the function of the heart valves?

A

The heart has four valves that prevent the backflow of blood. These valves are the
1. tricuspid (right AV valve): prevents backflow into the R atrium
2. mitral (left AV valve): prevents backflow into the L atrium
3. pulmonic (right SL valve): prevents backflow into the R ventricle
4. and aortic (left SL valve): prevents backflow into the L ventricle

Tricuspid valve:
- when the R ventricle contracts, the tricuspid valve closes to prevent backflow into the R atrium
- Instead, blood is pushed forward into the pulmonary artery

Pulmonary valve:
- after the R ventricle contracts & pumps blood into the pulmonary artery, the pulmonary valve clsoes to prevent backflow into the R ventricle

Mitral (biscuspid) valve:
- when the L ventricle contracts, the mitral valve closes to prevent backflow into the L atrium.
- this ensures that blood is pumped forward into the aorta

Aortic Valve:
- after the L ventricle contracts & sends blood into the aorta, the aortic valve closes to prevent backflow into the L ventricle

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6
Q

Heart Location & Structure

What are the three layers of the heart wall?

A
  1. Pericardium: The outer layer, a double-walled sac that encases and safeguards the heart.
  2. Myocardium: The middle layer, the muscular wall responsible for the heart’s pumping action.
  3. Endocardium: The inner layer, lining the heart chambers and valves.
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7
Q

Blood flow

Describe the path of blood flow through the heart, distinguishing between pulmonary and systemic circulation.

A

Pulmonary Circulation:
1. Deoxygenated blood travels from the body into the right atrium (RA), then to the right ventricle (RV).
2. It’s pumped from the RV to the lungs via the pulmonary artery to receive oxygen

Systemic Circulation:
1. Oxygen-rich blood returns from the lungs to the left atrium (LA), then goes to the left ventricle (LV).
2. The LV pumps this oxygenated blood out to the body through the aorta

“VC, RA, RV, PA,
Lungs give air, send it LA,
LV, AO, body all day!”

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8
Q

Blood flow

Explain how the heart valves ensure one-way blood flow.

A

Heart valves open and close passively in response to pressure changes within the heart chambers, ensuring that blood flows in a single direction

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9
Q

Cardiac Conduction

What does the term “automaticity” refer to in the context of the heart?

A

Automaticity means the heart has the inherent capacity to contract independently, without external signals, thanks to its electrical conduction system
- means the heart can contract on its own without needing external signals from the brain or nerves.
- This happens because of the heart’s electrical conduction system, which controls the heart’s rhythm.

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10
Q

Cardiac Conduction

What is the role of the SA node in the heart?

A

The SA node, often called the “pacemaker” of the heart, initiates the electrical impulse that triggers the heartbeat.

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11
Q

Cardiac Conduction

Outline the pathway of electrical impulse conduction in the heart.

A
  1. The electrical impulse originates in the SA node.
  2. It then travels through the atria to the AV node, continuing down the Bundle of His.
  3. The impulse then spreads through the bundle branches to the ventricles, causing them to contract.

SA Node → “SAy Aye” (It’s the pacemaker, starting the signal)
AV Node → “AVengers” (The AV node pauses, like superheroes planning the next move)
Bundle of His → “Bundle Up” (Like preparing for the next step)
Right and Left Bundle Branches → “Let’s Branch Out” (The signal branches into two paths)
Purkinje Fibers → “Purk the Party!” (Purkinje fibers fire, and the ventricles contract, finishing the job)

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12
Q

What does an electrocardiogram (ECG) record?

A

An ECG records the electrical activity of the heart.
- The characteristic PQRST waves seen on an ECG represent the different phases of the cardiac cycle.

P → Atria Push
(P wave: Atrial depolarization, atria contract to push blood into ventricles)
QRS → Quick Response
(Ventricular depolarization, ventricles rapidly contract to pump blood out)
T → Then Reset
(Ventricular repolarization, ventricles reset to get ready for the next beat)

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13
Q

Define cardiac output.

A

Cardiac output is the volume of blood the heart pumps out (ejects) every minute.
* It is calculated by multiplying stroke volume (the amount of blood ejected with each beat) by heart rate (the number of beats per minute)

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14
Q

what is preload

A

Preload refers to the amount of blood in the ventricles at the end of the diastole phase, which is when the ventricles are relaxed and filling with blood.
- It’s also a measure of the stretching of the ventricular walls.

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15
Q

explain afterload

A

Afterload is the amount of resistance the left ventricle has to overcome to pump blood out into the aorta.

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16
Q

What are the primary factors influencing cardiac output?

A

Four key factors influence cardiac output:
1. preload
2. afterload
2. heart rate,
3. and the heart’s ability to contract effectively (contractility).

Pump → Preload (How much blood fills the heart before it pumps)
Push → Afterload (The pressure the heart must push against to pump blood out)
Pace → Heart Rate (The speed or pace at which the heart beats)
Power → Contractility (The strength or power of the heart’s contraction)

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17
Q

What are the main types of blood vessels?

A

The main types of blood vessels are:
1. Arteries: These vessels carry oxygenated blood away from the heart (with the exception of the pulmonary artery).

  1. Veins: These vessels carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart (except for the pulmonary veins).
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18
Q

Describe the two main phases of the cardiac cycle.

A
  1. Diastole: This is the period of ventricular relaxation when the ventricles are filling with blood.
  2. Systole: This is the period of ventricular contraction when blood is ejected from the heart.
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19
Q

What creates heart sounds?

A

The sounds we hear as the heartbeat are primarily created by the closing of the heart valves and the flow of blood through the heart.

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20
Q

Heart Anatomy & Structures

apex of the heart

A

The tip of the heart, pointing down, located around the 5th space between the ribs on the left side.

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21
Q

Heart Anatomy & Structures

base of the heart

A

The wider top part of the heart, located at the 3rd space between the ribs, both on the right and left sides.

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22
Q

Heart Anatomy & Structures

Mitral valve

A

The valve between the left atrium (upper chamber) and left ventricle.
- AV valve

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23
Q

Heart Anatomy & Structures

tricuspid valve

A

The “web-y” valve between the right atrium and right ventricle.
- AV valves

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24
Q

Heart Anatomy & Structures

pulmonic valve

A

The valve between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery (which carries blood to the lungs).
- Semilunar (SL) valve

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25
# Heart Anatomy & Structures precordium
The area of the chest over the heart.
26
# Heart Anatomy & Structures midclavicular line (MCL)
An imaginary line down from the middle of the collarbone on each side of the chest.
27
# Heart sounds S1
the "lub" sound that happens when the mitral and tricuspid valves close at the beginning of the systole phase (ventricular contraction). - the 1st heart sound
28
# Heart sounds S2
The “dub” sound that occurs due to the closing of the aortic and pulmonic valves, marking the end of systole. - the 2nd heart sound
29
# Heart sounds S3
A soft, extra sound heard early in the heart’s filling phase, possibly indicating **heart failure.** - 3rd heart sound
30
# Heart sounds S4
A low-pitched sound heard late in the filling phase, also associated with heart conditions. - 4th heart sound
31
# Heart sounds Gallop rhythm
When you hear an extra (3rd or 4th) heart sound, it resembles the sound of a galloping horse.
32
# Heart sounds: Summation gallop
When both S3 and S4 sounds are present, which can suggest severe heart issues.
33
# Heart sounds Paradoxical splitting
- During **expiration** (breathing out), the pulmonary valve closes first and the aortic valve closes later, creating the split. - This is abnormal and can happen with conditions like **left** **bundle** **branch** **block** or **aortic** **stenosis**, where the left side of the heart takes longer to contract, *delaying the closure of the aortic valve.* ## Footnote L bundle branch block: - In left bundle branch block, the delay in the electrical signal causes the left side of the heart (and the aortic valve) to work more slowly, making the aortic valve close after the pulmonary valve. Aortic stenosis: - In aortic stenosis, the narrowed aortic valve causes a delay in closure, so the aortic valve closes later than the pulmonary valve.
34
# Heart sounds physiologic splitting
- In physiologic splitting, during inspiration (when you breathe in), you hear two distinct sounds within S2 because the aortic valve closes first, followed by the pulmonary valve. - This splitting is **normal** and happens because more blood flows into the lungs during inspiration, delaying the closure of the pulmonary valve slightly.
35
# valvular disorders aortic regurgitation
the leakage of blood going back into the left ventricle from the aorta (instead of going to the rest of body) Effects: 1. the L ventricle has to handle a larger volume of blood d/t backflow, leading to L ventricular dilation (enlargement of L ventricles) 2. L ventricle weaken & can fail over time = HF S/S: * may be asymptomatic in early stages * as the condition progresses, symptoms can include: 1. SOB 2. fatigue 3. palpitations 4. swelling in legs & ankles ## Footnote SOB - as the heart weakens, fluid builds up in the lungs (pulmonary congestion), making it harder to breathe Fatigue - u feel tired bc the heart is not pumping blood efficiently, meaning less O2 is getting to ur muscles & tissues Palpitations - the extra amt of blood in the L ventricle makes the heart work harder & faster - this increased workload can = irregular HB (palpitations) that are more noticeable when lying down/at night Swelling in legs & ankles - when the L side of the heart weakens, it can lead to fluid buildup thruout the body bc BF slows down, esp in the lower extremitites
36
what are the causes of aortic regurgitation?
1. rheumatic fever 2. infective endocarditis 3. connective tissue disorders (marfan syndrome) 4. aortic dissection 5. trauma
37
# valvular disorders aortic stenosis
calcification narrows the aortic valve, restrictsing blood flow from the L ventricle to the aorta. Effects: * the L ventricle has to work harder to pump blood thru the narrowed aortic valve (to the body) = L ventricular hypertrophy (thickening of heart muscle) * L ventricle eventually weakens = HF S/S: 1. chest pain 2. SOB 3. fatigue 4. dizziness 5. fainting ## Footnote Chest pain (angina): - the narrowed aortic vave & the reduced BF to the coronary arteries (which supply the heart) deprives the heart of O2 = chest pain esp during exertion SOB: - as the L ventricle becomes thicker from working harder to pump thru the narrows valve, it becomes weaker and causes blood to back up into the lungs & making it diff to breathe Fatigue: - less O2 rich blood reaches the muscle & organs d/t narrowed aortic valves Dizziness: - the brain not getting enough o2 d/t restricted BF out of the heart Fainting (Syncope): - drop in BF to the brain = fainting d/t the heart not being able to pump enough blood to maintain enough BP
38
what are the causes of aortic stenosis
1. congenital (present at birth) 2. acquired later in life d/t: * rheumatic fever * calcium buildup on the valve * wear & tear with age
39
# valvular disorders mitral regurgitation
Mitral regurgitation involves leakage of blood back into the left atrium. - It can cause fatigue, shortness of breath, and heart failure.
40
# valvular disorders mitral stenosis
The mitral valve becomes stiff or narrowed, blocking blood flow into the left ventricle during relaxation. * Common symptoms include fatigue, shortness of breath, and atrial fibrillation.
41
# valvular disorder pulmonic regurgitation
The pulmonic valve doesn’t close properly, allowing blood to flow back into the right ventricle.
42
# valvular disorders pulmonic stenosis
Pulmonic stenosis involves calcification restricting blood flow through the pulmonic valve, making it harder for blood to flow to the lungs.
43
What happens in tricuspid regurgitation?
Tricuspid regurgitation involves leakage of blood back into the right atrium.
44
What is a patent ductus arteriosus (PDA), and what type of murmur does it produce?
A PDA is a continuous "machinery murmur" heard in both systole and diastole. - It often resolves spontaneously in newborns.
45
What causes a venous hum, and in whom is it commonly found?
A venous hum is caused by turbulent blood flow in the jugular veins. - It is common in healthy children.
46
# cardiac physiology diastole
The phase when the heart relaxes and fills with blood.
47
# cardiac physiology systole
the phase when the heart contracts and pumps blood out.
48
# cardiac physiology apical impulse
The strongest heartbeat felt near the 5th space between the ribs, usually where you listen for the heart’s activity.
49
# cardiac physiology inching
Moving the stethoscope a little at a time across the chest to listen carefully to different heart sounds.
50
# cardiac physiology palpitation
The feeling of a rapid or irregular heartbeat that you can feel in your chest.
51
# cardiac physiology thrill
A vibration you can feel on the chest, which is caused by a strong heart murmur.
52
# heart conditions angina pectoris
Chest pain caused by the heart not getting enough oxygen.
53
# heart conditions cor pulmonale
The right side of the heart becomes enlarged or fails due to high blood pressure in the lungs.
54
# heart conditions left ventricular hypertrophy
The wall of the left ventricle becomes thick due to long-term strain (e.g., high blood pressure).
55
# heart conditions bradycardia
a slow heart rate (less than 50 bpm)
56
# heart conditions tachycardia
a fast heart rate (more than 95 bpm)
57
# heart conditions syncope
Fainting or passing out due to a temporary drop in blood flow to the brain.
58
# heart conditions cyanosis
A bluish color of the skin caused by low oxygen in the blood.
59
# heart conditions edema
Swelling in the legs or other areas due to fluid buildup.
60
# auscultation bell (of the stethescope)
The cup-shaped part used to listen to **low**-**pitched** sounds like heart **murmurs**.
61
# auscultation diaphragm (of the stethescope)
The flat part used to listen to high-pitched sounds like heartbeats and lung sounds.
62
# auscultation erb's point
A common place on the chest (3rd space between ribs on the left side) to listen to heart sounds.
63
# Congenital and Structural Heart Defects coarction of the aorta
A narrowing of the aorta, present at birth, which can reduce blood flow to the body.
64
# Congenital and Structural Heart Defects paradoxical splitting
When the S2 sound splits during expiration (breathing out), which is the opposite of normal.
65
# Congenital and Structural Heart Defects pericardial friction rub
A scratchy sound heard when the outer lining of the heart is inflamed.
66
dyspnea
Difficulty breathing or shortness of breath.
67
clubbing
A change in the shape of the fingers, often seen in people with long-term lung or heart problems.
68
What does cyanosis indicate, especially in newborns
Cyanosis suggests oxygen desaturation, which can be due to **congenital** **heart** **disease**.
69
What can pallor, or paleness of the skin, indicate
Pallor can point to decreased tissue perfusion potentially caused by: * a myocardial infarction (MI) * or low cardiac output states.
70
What should you look for in terms of a patient's distress level during a cardiovascular assessment?
Signs of distress that indicates cardiovascular issues are: 1. shortness of breath 2. fatigue 3. or discomfort
71
Why is poor weight gain a concerning sign in infants and children?
Poor weight gain in infants and children can be a sign of **heart** **disease**.
72
What could developmental delay in children signal?
Developmental delay may indicate an underlying heart condition.
73
What does a diminished carotid artery pulse suggest
A diminished carotid pulse that feels small & weak suggests: * decreased stroke volume, as seen in **cardiogenic** **shock**.
74
What does an increased carotid pulse
An increased carotid pulse (feels full & strong) indicates **hyperkinetic** states.
75
What does a bruit signify
a bruit is a blowing, swishing sound heard over the carotid artery - A bruit indicates turbulent blood flow, often a sign of atherosclerotic disease. - However, the absence of a bruit doesn't rule out stenosis.
76
What could cause unilateral distention of the jugular veins?
Unilateral distention may be caused by local issues such as **kinking** or an **aneurysm**.
77
What does bilateral distention of the jugular veins above 45 degrees signify?
This signifies increased central venous pressure (CVP), commonly seen in **heart** **failure**.
78
What does elevated jugular venous pressure, with pulsation >3 cm above the sternal angle at 45 degrees, suggest?
It suggests 1. heart failure 2. cardiac tamponade, 3. or constrictive pericarditis.
79
What does a positive abdominojugular test indicate
A positive abdominojugular test indicates elevated CVP and possible heart failure.
80
What does a **heave** or **lift** observed during inspection of the precordium indicate?
It indicates ventricular hypertrophy due to increased workload.
81
What does a displaced apical impulse suggest?
A displaced apical impulse suggests cardiac enlargement, often from left ventricular hypertrophy and dilation.
82
what abnormal observation can indicate cardiac enlargement in children?
a precordial bulge, observed to the left of the sternum with a hyperdynamic precordium signals cardiac enlargement in children
83
What does a thrill signify?
A thrill signifies turbulent blood flow and often accompanies loud murmurs.
84
What does a sustained apical impulse with increased force and duration suggest?
This finding suggests left ventricular hypertrophy without dilation.
85
Why is persistent tachycardia in infants concerning?
Persistent tachycardia in infants can be a sign of heart failure.
86
What are congenital heart defects?
Congenital heart defects are various structural abnormalities of the heart present at birth.
87
Why is bradycardia particularly serious in infants and children?
Bradycardia can cause a serious drop in cardiac output.
88
What should be done if an irregular heart rhythm is detected, excluding sinus arrhythmia?
Irregularities, except for sinus arrhythmia, should be investigated.
89
What are premature beats, and how do they present?
Premature beats occur when an isolated beat happens early, or a pattern emerges where every third or fourth beat is early.
90
Describe an irregularly irregular heart rhythm
An irregularly irregular rhythm, like atrial fibrillation, has no pattern to the heart sounds.
91
What does a pulse deficit indicate?
pulse deficit: a difference between apical and radial pulse rates - indicates weak ventricular contraction.
92
What can cause variations in the intensity of the first heart sound (S1)?
Variations in S1 can be caused by 1. the position of the atrioventricular (AV) valve 2. changes in valve structure, 3. or the force of atrial contraction.
93
What conditions are associated with an accentuated or diminished second heart sound (S2)?
Conditions affecting pressure in the aorta or pulmonary artery, or changes in the semilunar valves, can lead to variations in S2.
94
What is a fixed split S2, and what can it indicate?
A fixed split S2 is present throughout the respiratory cycle and can indicate an atrial septal defect or right ventricular failure.
95
What is a paradoxical split S2, and what conditions are associated with it?
In a paradoxical split S2, the sounds fuse on inspiration and split on expiration. - This is associated with conditions that delay aortic valve closure.
96
What can cause a wide split S2?
A wide split S2 can be caused by a right bundle branch block.
97
Why is an S3 (ventricular gallop) usually abnormal in adults over 35?
In adults over 35, an S3 usually suggests heart failure or volume overload.
98
What might an S4 (atrial gallop) indicate, although it can be normal in older adults?
An S4 can indicate coronary artery disease (CAD).
99
What is a midsystolic click often associated with?
A midsystolic click is often associated with mitral valve prolapse.
100
When is an opening snap heard, and what is it associated with?
An opening snap is heard after S2 and is associated with mitral stenosis.
101
What does a summation sound, a merging of S3 and S4 into one loud sound, often indicate?
A summation sound often indicates cardiac stress.
102
What do diastolic murmurs always indicate?
Diastolic murmurs always indicate heart disease.
103
Can systolic murmurs be benign?
Yes, systolic murmurs can be innocent or pathological.
104
How are murmurs caused by valvular defects classified
These murmurs are classified by timing, affected valve, and whether caused by stenosis or regurgitation.
105
What are the two types of heart failure, and what are some common symptoms?
Heart failure can be systolic (pumping problem) or diastolic (filling problem). * Symptoms include fatigue, shortness of breath, and edema.
106
What are the health risks associated with hypertension?
Hypertension (high blood pressure) can contribute to heart disease, stroke, and other problems.
107
What is coronary artery disease (CAD), and what can it lead to
CAD is atherosclerosis of the coronary arteries. It can lead to angina, heart attack, and heart failure.
108
What should you ask about in the History of Present Illness?
1. Onset 2. duration 3. type of pain 4. location 5. aggravating/relieving factors 6. and associated symptoms. ## Footnote For example, with chest pain, ask about **type**, **location**, **radiation**, **intensity**, and associated symptoms (like nausea or sweating).
109
What should you ask in the Past Medical History for cardiovascular assessment?
Ask about any history of 1. hypertension 2. hyperlipidemia 3. diabetes 4. heart attacks 5. strokes 6. past surgeries, or hospitalizations related to the heart.
110
Why is a detailed medication history important in cardiovascular assessments?
Pay attention to meds that affect cardiovascular function such as: 1. antihypertensives 2. antiarrhythmics 3. anticoagulants 4. prescription, over-the-counter drugs, and herbal supplements.
111
Why is it important to document allergies?
Document medication, food, or environmental allergies to prevent adverse reactions during treatment.
112
What family history should you gather in cardiovascular assessment?
ask about 1. coronary artery disease 2. hypertension 3. stroke 4. or sudden cardiac death in immediate family as these increase the patient's risk
113
What lifestyle factors are relevant in the Social History for cardiovascular assessment?
1. Smoking 2. alcohol consumption 3. diet, exercise 4. and stress levels as these significantly influence cardiovascular health.
114
What are the key vital signs to monitor in cardiovascular assessment?
1. Blood Pressure: Check in both arms for any difference, high BP may indicate hypertension. 2. Heart Rate: Note rhythm, tachycardia (>100 bpm) or bradycardia (<60 bpm) 3. Respiratory Rate: Increased rate may suggest heart failure. 4. Temperature: Look for signs of infection/inflammation. 5. Oxygen Saturation: Low levels suggest poor cardiac output or pulmonary congestion.
115
What do you inspect during a cardiovascular assessment?
1) General Appearance: * Look for signs of distress, cyanosis, pallor, or edema. 2) Skin: - Check for cold, clammy skin (suggests poor perfusion). 3) Chest: - Inspect for visible pulsations, heaves, or lifts (may indicate heart enlargement). 4). Extremities: - Check for edema, especially in lower extremities (could be right-sided heart failure). 5) Jugular Venous Distention (JVD): - Assess for JVD, a sign of increased right atrial pressure.
116
How do you assess the Carotid Arteries?
Gently palpate one artery at a time to assess 1. pulse rate 2. pulse rhythm 3. pulse amplitude 4. and pulse contour avoiding excessive pressure.
117
What is the Apical Impulse (PMI) and how do you assess it?
The PMI is the point where the left ventricle is felt against the chest wall. - Palpate at the 5th intercostal space, left midclavicular line, and note its location, size, and amplitude.
118
119
What are you listening for when auscultating heart sounds?
Listen at all four auscultatory areas (aortic, pulmonic, tricuspid, mitral) for **S1** and **S2**, noting **intensity**, any **splitting**, extra sounds (**S3**, **S4**), **clicks**, or **snaps**.
120
What should you assess if a murmur is detected?
Determine its timing (systolic or diastolic), location, intensity, pitch, pattern, and quality to aid in diagnosis.
121
What does an ECG help diagnose?
It records the heart's electrical activity to diagnose 1. arrhythmias 2. conduction abnormalities 3. and myocardial ischemia.
122
What does an echocardiogram assess?
It uses ultrasound to visualize the heart, checking 1. chamber sizes 2. valve function 3. ejection fraction 4. and wall motion abnormalities.
123
Why is a chest X-ray useful in cardiovascular assessment?
It assesses the size and shape of the heart and the condition of the lungs.
124
What blood tests are important in cardiovascular assessment?
Cardiac enzymes (**troponin**, **CK-MB**), lipid profile, and complete blood count (CBC) help assess heart function and identify risk factors for cardiovascular disease.
125
What is a possible nursing diagnosis for cardiovascular issues?
Diagnoses might include Decreased Cardiac Output, Ineffective Tissue Perfusion, or Activity Intolerance.
126
What are key interventions for a patient with a cardiovascular condition?
1. Monitor vital signs and oxygen saturation. 2. Administer medications as prescribed. 3. Educate on heart-healthy lifestyle changes (diet, exercise). 4. Provide emotional support and manage anxiety.
127
How do you evaluate the effectiveness of cardiovascular nursing interventions
Continuously assess the patient's vital signs, symptoms, and response to treatment, modifying the care plan as needed.
128
What are special considerations for cardiovascular assessment in pregnant women?
Be aware of potential complications like **gestational** **hypertension** and **preeclampsia** due to the cardiovascular changes during pregnancy.
129
What are cardiovascular concerns in infants and children?
Assess for 1. developmental milestones 2. feeding difficulties 3. and signs of congenital heart defects.
130
What are important considerations for older adults in cardiovascular assessment?
Be mindful of age-related changes like * decreased cardiac output * and increased risk of atherosclerosis.

Physical Assessment (4 decks)

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