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Hematology Flashcards

1
Q

What are the functions of blood?

A
  1. Takes nutrients from digestive tract to body tissues
  2. Carries O2 from lungs to tissues
  3. Carries CO2 from tissues to lungs
  4. Carries waste from tissues to kidneys
  5. Temperature control
  6. Water Balance
  7. pH Regulation
  8. Clotting Factors and Ability
  9. Defense system from Disease
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2
Q

What waste is carried from the tissues to the kidneys through the blood stream?

A

Carbon Dioxide

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3
Q

How does blood control temperature?

A

by transporting heat from deep tissues to surface

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4
Q

How is water balanced?

A
  • by the kidneys

- water can be excreted or reabsorbed

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5
Q

What is the purpose of clotting factors and abilities of blood?

A
  1. to keep the circulatory system a closed system

2. has the ability to stop bleeding

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6
Q

What are the components of blood?

A
  1. Plasma
  2. Erythrocytes
  3. Leukocytes
  4. Thrombocytes
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7
Q

What makes up plasma?

A
  1. 90% water
  2. Plasma Proteins
  3. Serum
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8
Q

If 90% of plasma is water, what is the other 10%?

A
  • dissolved particles
    1. electrolytes
    2. hormones
    3. waste products
    4. proteins
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9
Q

What is the function of plasma?

A
  • bathes all cells in body and protects them from the external environment
  • acts as a buffer to stabilize pH
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10
Q

What are the plasma proteins?

A
  1. Albumin

2. Globulin

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11
Q

What is Albumin?

A
  • a large molecule that aids in keeping fluid inside the vascular system
  • is the most abundant protein
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12
Q

What does Albumin transport by binding?

A
  1. Nutrients
  2. Waste Products
  3. Hormones
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13
Q

Where is Albumin produced?

A

liver

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14
Q

What are the 3 globulin proteins?

A
  1. Alpha
  2. Beta
  3. Gamma
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15
Q

What do Alpha globulins do?

A

transport stuff

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16
Q

What do Beta globulins do?

A

have fibrinogen which is essential for blood clotting

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17
Q

Where are Alpha and Beta globulins produced?

A

liver

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18
Q

What do Gamma globulins do?

A

immunity and resistance to disease

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19
Q

Where are Gamma globulins produced?

A

produced by plasma cells and lymphocytes when stimulated by antigens
(Not produced by liver)

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20
Q

How do Gamma globulins provide an immune response?

A

these antibodies react against antigens such as bacteria or foreign particles

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21
Q

What are all the functions of Plasma Proteins?

A
  1. Transportation
  2. clotting
  3. immune response
  4. buffering pH
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22
Q

What is serum?

A

plasma without the clotting factors or fibrinogen

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23
Q

What do Erythrocytes look like?

A
  • biconcave disc
  • smooth edges
  • central pallor
  • non-nucleated in mammals
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24
Q

What is the function of Erythrocytes?

A

specialized for O2 transport

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25
Q

How do erythrocytes carry oxygen?

A

with hemoglobin

- transports O2 and CO2

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26
Q

How is hemoglobin structured?

A

1 protein globin

4 non-protein hemes

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27
Q

What is attached to one hemoglobin molecule?

A
  • 4 irons per heme

- 4 oxygen per heme

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28
Q

What is it called when hemoglobin is combined with O2?

A

Oxyhemoglobin

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29
Q

Why is blood red?

A

hemoglobin is red

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30
Q

How are blood cells produced?

A

produced from undifferentiated stem cells which are capable of becoming many different types of cells

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31
Q

What is another word for undifferentiated stem cells?

A

pluripotent

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32
Q

How do blood cells mature?

A
  1. become smaller
  2. nucleus becomes smaller or are lost in RBCs
  3. blue cytoplasm = younger cells
  4. cytoplasm color changes as the cell matures
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33
Q

What does it mean when a blood cell sill has nucleoli?

A
  • it is a younger cell

- sign of metabolic growth and activity

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34
Q

What does -blast mean?

A

least differentiated cell in series, young cell

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35
Q

What does -cyte mean?

A

more mature cell

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36
Q

How is red blood cell production regulated?

A

by erythropoiesis produced by kidneys

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37
Q

What stimulates red blood cell production?

A

decreases in O2 in tissues or decreased hemoglobin concentration

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38
Q

What is the cycle of the RBC?

A
  1. Rubriblast
  2. Prorubricyte
  3. Rubricyte
  4. Metarubricyte
  5. Polychromatophil or reticulocyte
  6. Mature Erythrocyte
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39
Q

What is a rubriblast?

What does it contain?

A
  • earliest cell
  • nucleoli
  • inner chromatin
  • distinct
  • blue tint
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40
Q

What is a Prorubricyte?

What does it contain?

A
  • coarsening of chromatin
  • nucleoli disappearing
  • hemoglobin production starts
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41
Q

What is a Metarubricyte?

A

nucleated red blood cell

NRBC

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42
Q

What is a polychromatophil/ reticulocyte?

What does it contain?

A
  • no nucleus
  • some residual DNA (blue)
  • larger than mature RBC
  • released into blood stream and circulates for 1-2 days
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43
Q

How do polychromatophils/ reticulocytes stain?

A

when stained, shows blue stippling

basophilic stippling

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44
Q

How many polychromatophils/ reticulocytes should be in a blood smear?

A

1-2% normally

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45
Q

What does an increase in polychromatophils/ reticulocytes mean?

A

body’s response to decreased RBC levels

- anemia

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46
Q

How long is the lifecycle of a mature erythrocyte?

A

90-120 days in circulation

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47
Q

How does an erythrocyte break down?

A
  1. releases hemoglobin into plasma
  2. cell debris removed by macrophages
  3. hemoglobin is broken down
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48
Q

What are the macrophages that remove broken RBC debris?

A
  1. liver
  2. spleen
  3. bone marrow
  4. lymph nodes
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49
Q

What is globin broken down into?

A

amino acids

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50
Q

What are amino acids used for?

A

to make new proteins

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51
Q

How is heme broken down?

A
  • iron is stripped away

- heme is broken to biliverdin

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52
Q

How is biliverdin broken down?

A
  1. unconjugated bilirubin
  2. liver
  3. conjugated bilirubin
  4. becomes bilinogen in feces
  5. becomes urobilinogen in urine
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53
Q

What are Howell-Jolly bodies?

A

nuclear remnants in about 1% of RBCs

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54
Q

What are Heinz bodies?

A
  • denatured hemoglobin that occurs in about 10% of RBC

- called a bleb

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55
Q

What is the purpose of leukocytes?

A
  • Defend the body against invasion by an organisms or chemicals
  • remove debris that results from dead or injured cells
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56
Q

Where are leukocytes found?

A

Act primarily in tissues

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57
Q

What do white blood cells do in the bloodstream?

A

Most are non-functional in blood stream

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58
Q

What are the different types of leukocytes?

A
  1. Granulocytes

2. Agranulocytes

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59
Q

What are granulocytes?

A

Contain granules within cytoplasm

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60
Q

What leukocytes are granulocytes?

A
  1. Neutrophils
  2. Eosinophils
  3. Basophils
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61
Q

What are agranulocytes?

A

Do not contain granules within cytoplasm

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62
Q

What leukocytes are agranulocytes?

A
  1. Lymphocytes

2. Monocytes

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63
Q

What are granulocytes made from?

A

Undifferentiated stem cells in red bone marrow

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64
Q

What is the cycle of granulated white blood cells?

A
  1. Myeloblast
  2. Promyelocytes
  3. Myelocye
    - eosinophils
    - basophils
  4. Neutrophils
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65
Q

What are Myeloblasts and what do they contain?

A
  • non-granular cytoplasm
  • blue with red round nucleus
  • Nucleoli
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66
Q

What are Promyelocytes and what do they contain?

A
  • distinct granules present

- nucleoli disappear

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67
Q

What are Myelocytes and what do they contain?

A
  • Granules differentiated

- will stain blue or red

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68
Q

What cells are formed directly from Myelocytes?

A
  1. Basophils

2. Eosinophils

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69
Q

How do you neutrophils further developed after myelocytes?

A

Undergo further division known as a “band” or immature form

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70
Q

What does a neutrophil look like?

A
  • polymorphonucleated leukocytes

- segmented nucleus

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71
Q

What are neutrophils used for?

A
  • first line of defense against infection

- breaks down necrotic tissue

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72
Q

Why do numbers of neutrophils increase rapidly?

A

when an acute infection is present

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73
Q

What is the average transit time for neutrophils?

A

10 hours

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74
Q

What happens when blood moves into tissues?

A

cannot come back into the bloodstream

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75
Q

How do neutrophils leave the tissues?

A

Lost in secretion or excretions through mucous membranes

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76
Q

What do T cells do to the affected cells?

A

Actively lyses and kills affected cells

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77
Q

What do B-cells deal with?

A

Antigens in blood, plasma and lymph

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78
Q

How do B-cells react to antigens?

A

Antibody production and release into blood and lymph

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79
Q

What do T-cells have specific immunity resistance to?

A

Most bacteria and extracellular phase of viral infection

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80
Q

What do eosinophils look like?

A
  • granules stain red with acid dye (eosin)

- nucleus shape doesn’t matter

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81
Q

What do eosinophils do?

A
  • ingest products of antibodies and antigens
  • anti-parasitic
  • phagocytic
  • bactericidal
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82
Q

How common are eosinophils in the bloodstream?

A
  • normally scarce in the bloodstream
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83
Q

What does an increase in eosinophils in the bloodstream indicate?

A

an increase occurs during a parasitic infections and allergic reactions

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84
Q

What do basophils look like?

A
  • granules stain dark blue-purple
  • nucleus shape does not matter
  • rare
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85
Q

What do basophils do?

A
  • role in immunity
  • releases substances such as histamine
  • releases heparin
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86
Q

How does the release of histamine react to the body?

A

inflammation and allergic reactions

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87
Q

What happens when a basophil is stimulated?

A

degranulation occurs

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88
Q

What species has more basophils?

A

old horses

89
Q

What are lymphocytes used for?

A

immunity

90
Q

What are antigens?

A
  • substances that elicit specific immune response when present in the body
91
Q

What are antigens capable of recognizing?

A

self from non-self by protein flags

92
Q

What are antibodies?

A

specialized protein produced in response to an antigen

93
Q

Example of antibodies

A
  • gamma globulins

- immunoglobulins (Ig)

94
Q

What are the 5 classes of antibodies?

A

1: IgG
2: IgM
3: IgE
4: IgA
5: IgD

95
Q

What do IgG and IgM antibodies do?

A

fight bacteria and viruses

96
Q

What do IgE antibodies do?

A

allergic responses

97
Q

What do IgA antibodies do?

A

protects GI, urogenital, and respiratory tracts

98
Q

What do IgD antibodies do and where are they found?

A
  • present on the surface of some lymphocytes (b-lymphs)

- initiate humoral immune response

99
Q

What can lymphocytes form hundreds of?

A

different types of sensitized lymphocytes

100
Q

What is there for each sensitized lymphocyte?

A

antibodies specific for a particular antigen

101
Q

What are the sensitized lymphocytes capable of?

A

capable of multiplying into large numbers of clones when excited by that antigen

102
Q

Antigens stimulate what type of lymphocyte?

A

B-lymphs or B-cells

103
Q

What is produced when B-lymphs are stimulated by antigens?

A
  1. immunoglobulins

2. antibodies

104
Q

What do lymphocytes look like?

A
  • usually round cells with large round nucleus, little cytoplasm (blue)
  • nucleus is dark purple, smooth margins
105
Q

What do T-lymphs or T-Cells function in?

A

cell mediated immunity

106
Q

What is cell mediated immunity?

A
  • lymphocytic controlled or controlled by T-cells

- do not secrete antibodies

107
Q

How do T-cells identify antigens?

A
  • have antigen receptors on the surface

- recognize and react to many types of antigens

108
Q

What happens when antigens reach the lymphoid tissues?

A

fractions of b-cells are stimulated to undergo rapid cell division

109
Q

When antigens reach the lymph tissues, some divide into plasma cells which produce what?

A

antibodies

110
Q

In what form do antibodies circulate in the plasma?

A

as free gamma globulin proteins

111
Q

What do antibodies bind with?

A

the antigens that caused the production of those antibodies

112
Q

What are memory cells?

A

B-cells that provide the body with memory of antigen exposure

113
Q

How do memory cells help fight antigens?

A

helps produce a more rapid response to previously known antigens

114
Q

What percentage of lymphocytes ever appear in the blood stream?

A

10%

115
Q

Where are lymphocytes found?

A
  • lymph nodes
  • liver
  • spleen
116
Q

How do recirculating lymphocytes travel through the bloodstream? (where?)

A
  1. lymph node
  2. lymphatic or thoracic duct
  3. blood
  4. lymph node
117
Q

What are the most common lymphocytes that circulate in the blood?

A

T-Cells

118
Q

How do T-cells form?

A
  • stem cells in red bone marrow
119
Q

Where do B-Cells mature?

A

lymph nodes

120
Q

How do B-Cells form?

A

stem cells in red bone marrow

121
Q

Where to T-Cells travel?

A

travel via bloodstream to thymus gland

122
Q

Where do B-Cells travel?

A

travel via bloodstream to liver, spleen, lymph nodes

123
Q

Where do T-Cells mature?

A

Thymus gland

124
Q

What is the average blood transit time for lymphocytes?

A

30 min

125
Q

Where do lymphocytes increase in numbers?

A
  • lymph nodes

- spleen

126
Q

What leukocyte is the most predominant in bovines?

A

lymphocytes

127
Q

What is the cell that is antigenically stimulated?

A

immunocyte

128
Q

What does an immunocyte look like?

A
  • larger and more intense cytoplasmic color (dark purple)

- occasionally a clear perinuclear zone

129
Q

What is another name for a perinuclear zone?

A

Golgi zone

130
Q

What are lymphoblasts?

A

large lymphs which contain nucleoli within the nucleus

131
Q

What does an increase in lymphoblasts mean?

A

neoplasia (cancer cells)

132
Q

What do plasma cells look like?

A
  • eccentrically placed round nucleus with pale perinuclear area
  • obvious Golgi zone
133
Q

What do monocytes look like?

A
  • large cell
  • elongated
  • lobulated
  • indented nucleus
  • lace-like chromatin
  • nucleus can be any shape
  • gray-blue cytoplasm
134
Q

What do monocytes do?

A

phagocytosis and digestion of particulate and cellular debris

135
Q

What is interferon?

A
  • proteins that are formed when body is exposed to viral antigens (protection)
136
Q

What is transferrin?

A

A protein that transports iron

137
Q

What are antigen presenting cells?

A
  • Matchmakers of the circulatory system by bringing antigens to B-Lymphs in the lymph nodes
  • monocytes
138
Q

Where do you B – cells usually stay?

A

In the lymph nodes

139
Q

Where are monocytes formed?

A

In bone marrow

140
Q

What are Ameboids?

A

Cells that develop into large phagocytic cells called macrophages in the tissues

141
Q

What do macrophages do?

A

Ingest bacteria and other foreign substances

142
Q

How do macrophages live?

A
  • can survive in tissues for long periods of time

- capable of division

143
Q

What do monocytes do in the bloodstream and how long are they there?

A
  • stays in bloodstream for 24 to 36 hours

- Active in bloodstream

144
Q

How do monocytes compare in different species?

A

Monocytes are similar in all domestic animals

145
Q

How often are macrophages seen in the bloodstream?

A

Very rarely

146
Q

What do macrophages look like?

A

Very very large with lots of vacuolated cytoplasm

147
Q

What percent of neutrophils are found in canine, feline, and equine blood?

A

60-70%

148
Q

What percentage of lymphocytes are in canine, feline, and equine blood?

A

10–40%

149
Q

What percentage of eosinophils and monocytes are found in canine, feline, equine, and bovine blood?

A

0–10% each

150
Q

What percentage of basophils are found in canines, felines, equines, and bovines?

A

Rare

151
Q

What percentage of neutrophils are found in bovine blood?

A

10–40%

152
Q

What percentage of lymphocytes are found in bovine blood?

A

60–70%

153
Q

What do platelets look like?

A
  • Non-nucleated cell fragments that vary in size and shape

- usually round, smaller than red blood cells

154
Q

What does a platelet cytoplasm look like?

A

Pale blue with purple pink granules

155
Q

Because platelets are sticky how are they seen in blood smears?

A

In clumps at the edge of blood smears

156
Q

What do platelets do?

A

Contribute to hemostasis by providing coagulation factors as well as forming a hemostatic plug which seals breaks in small vessels

  • stops bleeding
157
Q

What do platelets absorb and carry on their surfaces?

A

Plasma factors required for formation of fibrin

158
Q

Where are platelets formed?

A

In red bone marrow

159
Q

How are platelets formed?

A

– Megakaryocytes

- bud off or fragment from cytoplasm of megakaryocyte

160
Q

What is a megakaryocyte?

A

One of the largest cells in the bone marrow

Forms platelets when broken

161
Q

What is the scientific name for platelets?

A

Thrombocytes

162
Q

Definition of hemostasis

A

Arrest of bleeding or circulation

163
Q

What is hemostasis?

A

promoters and inhibitors of blood coagulation

164
Q

What is the hemostatic process designed to do?

A

Design to maintain blood within the vessels

Wants to be a closed system

165
Q

When is hemostasis initiated?

A

When a vascular injury disrupts the blood vessel

166
Q

What are the three things that work together to stop bleeding?

A
  1. Blood vessel
  2. Platelets
  3. Clotting factors
167
Q

Why is it important to keep blood cells circulating?

A

To bring oxygen into the body and CO2 and waste products out of the body

168
Q

What happens when a vessel is injured?

A
  • Vessel constricts
  • decreases or stops blood flow
  • allows time for other hemostatic activities
169
Q

What do platelets do in an undamaged vessel?

A

Circulate freely, do not stick to inside

170
Q

What do you platelets do in an injured vessel?

A

Platelets adhere to outside tissue

171
Q

What is collagen?

A

Insoluble protein found in connective tissue

172
Q

The injured vessel releases chemicals to make the platelets do what?

A

platelet surfaces to become sticky

173
Q

Other chemicals are released by the injured blood vessel to do what?

(Not platelets)

A

Facilitate vasoconstriction and contribute to blood clotting

174
Q

What does the formation of a platelet plug do?

A

May slow or stop bleeding completely

175
Q

What happens if the platelet plug is unable to stop the bleeding because the injury is too large?

A

Blood clotting may be necessary to stop the bleeding

176
Q

How does gentle pressure on the wound help slow bleeding?

A

Constricts the blood vessel to slow bleeding but still allows the platelets to get to the injury

177
Q

What is coagulation or blood clotting?

A

A complex process that involves a number of factors many of which are present in the plasma

178
Q

What does the formation of a blood clot require?

A

conversion of a soluble protein, fibrinogen, into an insoluble thread like polymer called fibrin

179
Q

What do fibrin threads do?

A

Form a network that entraps blood cells, platelets, and plasma to form a clot itself

180
Q

How do fibrin threads create a clot?

A

Fibrin threads adhere to damaged blood vessels and anchor clot in place

181
Q

What do monocytes produce?

A
  1. Interferon

2. Transferrin

182
Q

What type of cells are monocytes?

A

Antigen presenting cells

183
Q

What do Gamma Globulins do to antigens?

A

it either neutralizes antigens or helps break them down

184
Q

How many hemoglobin are there on one RBC?

A

up to 300 million hemoglobin molecules

185
Q

What does the decrease in O2 or hemoglobin stimulate?

A

erythropoiesis

RBC production

186
Q

Where are neutrophils found?

A
  • Usually occurs in bone marrow

- if demand for neutrophils is high they will be in the bloodstream

187
Q

How often are neutrophils replaced?

A

replaced about every 2 1/2 days

188
Q

How do T-Cells respond to antigens besides attacking them?

A

stimulates inflammation response to attract neutrophils to phagocytize

189
Q

What are eosinophils attracted to?

A

attracted by and inhibit allergic or anaphylactic reactions

190
Q

How does interferon protect the body?

A
  • antitumor qualities (stops spreading)

- helps prevent the spread of viruses to other body cells

191
Q

What can sticky platelets do?

A

platelets adhere to an injured area of a blood vessel to form a platelet plug

192
Q

During coagulation what is fibrinogen converted into?

A

Fibrin

193
Q

What is the enzyme thrombin produced from?

A

prothrombin

194
Q

What are the extrinsic factors of hemostasis?

A

ingredients found outside the vessels

195
Q

What do damaged tissues (collagen) produce?

A

thromboplastins

196
Q

What do thromboplastins do?

A

accelerate the clotting mechanisms

197
Q

What are the intrinsic factors of hemostasis?

A

all components necessary for clotting are present in normal blood

198
Q

How fast do intrinsic factors react to coagulation?

A

very, very slow compared to extrinsic factors

199
Q

What systems are needed to maintain normal hemostasis?

A

both intrinsic and extrinsic

200
Q

What happens after clot formation?

A

clot retraction

201
Q

How does a clot start to retract?

A

fibrin meshwork shrinks

202
Q

What happens to the damaged vessel after the clot starts to retract?

A
  • becomes denser and stronger

- edges of damaged vessel are pulled together

203
Q

What happens to the plasma when the clot retracts?

A

serum is pushed out of the fibrin meshwork

204
Q

Why is serum pushed out of the fibrin meshwork?

A

because the clotting factors in the plasma were used up and serum was left over

205
Q

During clot dissolution the enzyme plasmin is activated from what?

A

plasminogen

206
Q

What is another name for plasmin?

A

fibrinolysin

207
Q

What does plasmin do?

A

breaks down fibrin and dissolves clots

208
Q

What is clot dissolution activated by?

A

damaged tissue and thrombin

209
Q

How long does it take for there to be enough plasmin to break down a clot and dissolve it?

A

a few days

210
Q

What are some anticlotting factors?

A
  • heparin

- plasmin

211
Q

What does the smooth lining of vessels prevent?

A

prevents platelets from adhering

212
Q

Where can intravascular clots form?

A

inside the vascular system

213
Q

What is a thrombus?

A

if a clot adheres to a vessel wall

214
Q

What does a thrombus do?

A

stops blood flow

clot

215
Q

What can happen if a thrombus stays too long?

A

can block blood supply to the heart and cause heart damage or even heart failure

216
Q

What is an embolus?

A

intravascular clot floating in the blood

217
Q

What can happen if an embolus gets caught in small vessels?

A

blocks the blood flow and damaging surrounding tissues

218
Q

What happens when a basophil is stimulated?

A

can degranulate

Other (10 decks)

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