Henry VII (1485-1509) Flashcards
(232 cards)
1
Q
What was the political landscape of the English monarchy in the late 15th century prior to Henry VII’s reign?
A
Characterized by instability, frequent dynastic struggle (Wars of the Roses), weak central authority, powerful and factionalized nobility, and a perception of the Crown’s vulnerability.
2
Q
What were the “Wars of the Roses”?
A
A series of civil wars (roughly 1455-1487) between the Houses of Lancaster (red rose) and York (white rose) for control of the English throne, causing significant political and social disruption.
3
Q
Who was Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, and what was his family background?
A
The future Henry VII. His claim came through his mother, Margaret Beaufort, a descendant of Edward III through John of Gaunt (son of Edward III) and his third wife, Catherine Swynford (whose children were later legitimised, but excluded from the throne).
4
Q
Describe Henry Tudor’s character leading up to and immediately after Bosworth.
A
Cautious, astute, patient (having spent years in exile), intelligent, pragmatic, and ruthless when necessary. He had learned from the mistakes of previous monarchs.
5
Q
Why was Henry Tudor’s claim to the throne considered weak?
A
It was through the female line (his mother, Margaret Beaufort), and the Beaufort line had been explicitly excluded from the succession by an Act of Parliament (though later legitimised). Many others had stronger claims by primogeniture.
6
Q
Who was Richard III, and why was he considered a “usurper”?
A
The last Plantagenet king, who seized the throne in 1483 from his young nephew, Edward V, following the death of his brother, Edward IV. He was widely perceived as having unlawfully taken the throne.
7
Q
What is the mystery surrounding the “Princes in the Tower”?
A
Edward V and his younger brother Richard, Duke of York (sons of Edward IV), imprisoned in the Tower of London by Richard III in 1483. They disappeared and were never seen again, widely believed to have been murdered on Richard III’s orders, which significantly damaged his reputation.
8
Q
What was the significance of the Battle of Bosworth (date, key figures, outcome)?
A
22 August 1485. Henry Tudor’s forces, supported by the Stanleys, defeated Richard III, who was killed in battle. This effectively ended the Wars of the Roses and placed Henry Tudor on the throne.
9
Q
Who were the Stanleys, and what was their crucial role at Bosworth?
A
Sir William Stanley and Lord Thomas Stanley (Henry Tudor’s stepfather). They initially held back their forces during the battle, then decisively intervened on Henry’s side, turning the tide and ensuring Richard III’s defeat and death.
10
Q
How did Henry VII “pre-date” his reign, and what was the immediate benefit?
A
Declared himself king from 21 August 1485, the day before the Battle of Bosworth. This allowed him to declare all those who fought for Richard III at Bosworth as traitors, immediately enabling the use of Acts of Attainder against them and confiscating their lands.
11
Q
What was the political and symbolic importance of Henry VII’s marriage to Elizabeth of York (January 1486)?
A
Politically, it united the Houses of Lancaster (Henry) and York (Elizabeth), thereby ending the dynastic feud. Symbolically, it was a powerful act of reconciliation and unity, vital for propaganda.
12
Q
What was the “Tudor Rose” and its symbolic purpose?
A
A new royal emblem combining the red rose of Lancaster and the white rose of York. It symbolized the end of the Wars of the Roses and the unity of the two previously warring factions under the new Tudor dynasty.
13
Q
How did Henry VII use propaganda to legitimize his rule?
A
Through the Tudor Rose, commissioning histories (like Polydore Vergil’s), and carefully orchestrated public events like his coronation and royal progresses to project an image of strength, legitimacy, and divine favour.
14
Q
Explain the concept of the “Tudor Myth.”
A
A historical narrative (developed later but rooted in Henry’s propaganda) that depicted the Tudors as saviours who rescued England from the chaos and tyranny of the Wars of the Roses, bringing peace, order, and prosperity. It enhanced the dynasty’s legitimacy.
15
Q
How did Henry VII initially treat his key supporters after Bosworth?
A
He rewarded them with titles, lands, and positions in his government (e.g., Earl of Oxford, Lord Stanley became Earl of Derby). However, he was also careful not to create new overly powerful magnates who could challenge him.
16
Q
What was the significance of Henry VII’s coronation (October 1485) occurring before his marriage?
A
It asserted his claim to the throne by right of conquest and divine favour before any marital claim. It showed he was King in his own right, not merely through his wife.
17
Q
What was a ‘Royal Progress’ and how did Henry VII use them?
A
The King and his court traveling through the country. Used by Henry to display royal authority, administer justice, gather intelligence, and connect with local elites, thereby reinforcing his power across the kingdom.
18
Q
When did Henry VII summon his first Parliament, and what was its key legislative action regarding royal finances?
A
November 1485. Its key action was to grant him the customs duties of ‘Tonnage and Poundage’ for life, providing a crucial and stable source of royal income.
19
Q
How did the birth of Prince Arthur secure the succession for Henry VII?
A
Born in 1486, Arthur provided a clear, legitimate male heir to the throne, which was crucial for dynastic stability after years of uncertainty and civil war.
20
Q
What were ‘Acts of Attainder’ and how did Henry VII utilize them in his early reign?
A
Parliamentary acts that declared individuals guilty of treason without trial, leading to the forfeiture of their lands and titles to the Crown. Henry used them extensively against Yorkist supporters to punish opposition, secure wealth, and reinforce his authority.
21
Q
How did Henry VII deal with potential Yorkist opposition in the immediate aftermath of Bosworth?
A
Imprisoned key Yorkist figures with strong claims (e.g., Edward, Earl of Warwick); used Acts of Attainder against known Yorkist adherents; carefully managed patronage; and eventually married Elizabeth of York to unite the factions.
22
Q
What was Polydore Vergil’s main perspective on Henry VII’s reign?
A
Vergil (an Italian humanist commissioned by Henry) largely portrayed Henry as a wise, prudent, and divinely favoured ruler who brought peace and stability after the Wars of the Roses. He was an early contributor to the “Tudor Myth,” though he also noted Henry’s avarice.
23
Q
How did Francis Bacon interpret Henry VII’s rule in his 17th-century history?
A
Bacon saw Henry as a highly shrewd, rational, and effective politician who skillfully established the Tudor dynasty and restored royal authority after a period of chaos. He particularly praised Henry’s financial acumen and cunning in suppressing threats.
24
Q
What is John Guy’s modern historiographical view of Henry VII?
A
Guy sees Henry as a highly effective and innovative ruler who modernized the machinery of government, particularly in finance, and laid the foundations for the powerful Tudor state. He emphasizes Henry’s proactive approach to consolidating power.
25
What is Wallace MacCaffrey's interpretation of Henry VII's reign?
MacCaffrey tends to emphasize the continuity of Henry's reign with late medieval practices, seeing him as less of a radical innovator and more as a restorer of traditional royal authority and institutions, particularly in his reliance on established noble networks.
26
How does Christine Carpenter's historiography challenge earlier views of Henry VII?
Carpenter argues that Henry's reign was not as radically "new" as some historians suggest. She emphasizes the continued power of the nobility (despite Henry's efforts to control them) and the limitations of central government in imposing its will across the entire country, suggesting more continuity with the past.
27
Who was Margaret of Burgundy, and how did she pose a threat to Henry VII?
The sister of Edward IV and Richard III, she was a staunch Yorkist who harbored resentment against Henry. From her base in Burgundy, she provided significant financial and logistical support, and even troops, for Yorkist pretenders like Lambert Simnel and Perkin Warbeck.
28
Describe the 'Lovell and the Staffords' rebellion (1486).
An early, uncoordinated Yorkist uprising shortly after Bosworth. Viscount Lovell and the Stafford brothers attempted to raise forces in the Midlands and Yorkshire. It quickly collapsed due to lack of support, demonstrating Henry's swift response and the weakness of early Yorkist efforts.
29
Who did Lambert Simnel pretend to be, and who supported him?
Pretended to be Edward, Earl of Warwick (the imprisoned nephew of Edward IV, who had a strong Yorkist claim). He was supported by Margaret of Burgundy and John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln (a prominent Yorkist).
30
Who was John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln, and what was his role in the Simnel rebellion?
A leading Yorkist noble, nephew of Edward IV and Richard III, and the designated heir of Richard III. He actively supported Lambert Simnel's claim, believing Simnel to be the true Earl of Warwick, and led the invading force at the Battle of Stoke Field.
31
What was the significance of the Battle of Stoke Field (1487)?
The decisive defeat of Lambert Simnel's forces and the Yorkist rebellion. It effectively marked the last major battle of the Wars of the Roses and significantly strengthened Henry VII's hold on the throne, removing a major Yorkist threat.
32
What were 'Bonds of Good Behaviour' and how did Henry use them following rebellions?
Financial agreements that compelled individuals (especially former rebels or those suspected of disloyalty) to pay a sum of money if they failed to meet certain conditions (e.g., remaining loyal, appearing in court). A key tool for financial control and ensuring political obedience without needing to execute nobles.
33
Who did Perkin Warbeck claim to be, and what was his fate?
Claimed to be Richard, Duke of York (the younger of the 'Princes in the Tower'). He gained significant international support (France, Burgundy, Scotland, Ireland). After several attempts to invade England, he was captured and executed in 1499, along with the real Earl of Warwick.
34
Who was Edward, Earl of Warwick, and what happened to him?
The true Earl of Warwick, nephew of Edward IV and Richard III, and a strong Yorkist claimant. He was imprisoned by Henry VII from 1485. His continued existence was a threat, leading to his execution in 1499 (after Warbeck's capture) to remove any potential focus for Yorkist plots.
35
Who were Edmund de la Pole (Earl of Suffolk) and Richard de la Pole ("the White Rose")?
Nephews of Edward IV, significant Yorkist claimants who fled abroad. Edmund was eventually handed over to Henry VII (via the Treaty of Windsor 1506) and imprisoned (executed by Henry VIII). Richard remained a threat on the continent until his death in battle in 1525.
36
What was the 'Stanley Conspiracy' (1495)?
Sir William Stanley (Henry's step-uncle, crucial at Bosworth) was implicated in plotting with Perkin Warbeck. This revealed Henry's ruthless determination: even trusted supporters were executed if they threatened his security, demonstrating his willingness to control even the highest nobility.
37
Describe the fundamental structure of monarchy and government in England under Henry VII, highlighting the concept of personal monarchy
England operated as a personal monarchy, meaning the government revolved directly around the King. All power emanated from him, and he made the ultimate decisions. While institutions like Parliament and the Council existed, their effectiveness and role were largely determined by the monarch's will and personality. Henry's shift towards closer personal control of finance (Chamber) exemplifies this.
38
What was the significance of The Royal Court under Henry VII, beyond just being the King's household?
The Royal Court was the centre of political power, patronage, and influence. Access to the King via the Court was crucial for nobles and aspiring bureaucrats. Henry used it as a means of control, ensuring those closest to him were loyal and useful, and it served as a stage for demonstrating his authority and majesty through carefully managed ceremonies and displays.
39
What were the primary functions of The Council under Henry VII, and what types of activities did it undertake?
The Council (or King's Council) served multiple functions:
Advising the King: On matters of policy, legislation, and foreign affairs.
Administering Law & Order: Acting as a high court of appeal and addressing petitions.
Implementing Royal Policy: Ensuring the King's commands were carried out across the realm.
It was the core executive body of the government, distinct from the broader and less formal Great Council.
40
Describe the types of councillor Henry VII preferred and why, particularly focusing on the rise of 'new men' (elites/bureaucrats).
Henry deliberately reduced reliance on over-mighty magnates (powerful nobles) in his inner circle. He favoured professional administrators, lawyers, and skilled bureaucrats, often from the gentry or lesser nobility (e.g., John Morton, Sir Reginald Bray, Richard Fox). These 'new men' owed their position entirely to the King, ensuring their absolute loyalty and efficiency, unlike potentially rivalrous nobles.
41
Identify John Morton and Sir Reginald Bray, explaining their significance in Henry VII's government.
John Morton: Archbishop of Canterbury and Lord Chancellor. A key advisor, skilled administrator, and loyal servant from pre-Bosworth days. Known for "Morton's Fork" (a legal maxim used to extract money), exemplifying Henry's shrewd financial policies.
Sir Reginald Bray: A trusted confidant and efficient administrator, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. Instrumental in the Council Learned in Law's early operations and Henry's financial management. His death in 1503 led to the more notorious reign of Empson and Dudley.
42
What was the specific role of The Council Learned in Law, and why did it become so infamous?
Established in 1495, its sole purpose was to enforce the King's prerogative rights (royal powers not dependent on Parliament) and exploit financial opportunities. It systematically pursued debts, bonds, and feudal dues owed to the Crown, often bypassing common law procedures and juries. Its arbitrary and ruthless methods, overseen by Empson and Dudley, made it incredibly unpopular and a symbol of Henry's 'rapacious' tendencies.
43
Who were Sir Richard Empson and Edmund Dudley, and what was their connection to Henry VII's financial policies?
They were key ministers and lawyers who became the highly unpopular chief enforcers of Henry VII's financial policies, particularly through the Council Learned in Law. They aggressively pursued bonds, recognisances, and royal dues, earning Henry large sums but significant resentment. Their controversial methods led to their execution by Henry VIII upon his accession.
44
Define 'prerogative rights' in the context of Henry VII's reign.
The inherent powers and privileges of the monarch that did not require parliamentary approval. Under Henry VII, these were particularly exploited for financial gain (e.g., feudal dues, wardship, bonds), reflecting his ambition to rule independently of frequent parliamentary grants and to maximize royal income.
45
Explain the difference between the Exchequer and the Chamber system for royal finance, and why Henry VII preferred the latter.
Exchequer: The traditional, bureaucratic, and slow medieval system of royal accounting and revenue collection.
Chamber: A more personal, informal system where finances were managed within the King's own household, under the direct supervision of the monarch and key loyal officials (like the Lord Chamberlain). Henry preferred the Chamber due to its greater speed, efficiency, and allowing him direct, centralized control over income and expenditure, maximizing his wealth.
46
What was the Privy Chamber, and why was it significant in later Tudor periods (and nascent under Henry VII)?
A highly exclusive part of the royal household, comprising the King's closest personal servants. While less formally developed than under Henry VIII, it was already becoming a space where the King conducted private business and where intimate access could grant immense informal power. Henry VII's reliance on trusted individuals within his household laid the groundwork for its later importance.
47
What were the two houses of Parliament under Henry VII, and what distinguished their composition (MPs, Lords Spiritual & Lords Temporal)?
House of Commons: Composed of MPs (Members of Parliament) elected from boroughs and counties, primarily local gentry and merchants. The 'right to vote' was highly restricted based on property ownership.
House of Lords: Composed of the Lords Spiritual (senior clergy, e.g., bishops and abbots) and Lords Temporal (nobles holding hereditary peerages). This was the more powerful house and the highest court of the land
48
What was the overall role of Parliament under Henry VII, and how frequently did it meet?
Parliament was primarily an instrument of royal will, summoned infrequently (only 7 times in 24 years) for specific purposes. Its main roles were: granting taxation (subsidies) for extraordinary expenses (like war), passing Acts of Attainder against opponents, confirming Henry's legitimacy, and passing legislation for law and order. It was not a body that regularly initiated policy.
49
What were 'Ordinary Revenue' and 'Extraordinary Revenue' in the context of royal finance, and how did Parliament relate to them?
Ordinary Revenue: Regular, stable income derived from the Crown's traditional sources (e.g., Crown lands, feudal dues, customs duties like Tonnage and Poundage). This did not typically require parliamentary consent.
Extraordinary Revenue: Ad-hoc income needed for specific, exceptional expenses (e.g., war, royal marriages). This usually required a parliamentary grant, such as 'fifteenths and tenths' (a standard land and movable goods tax).
50
What were 'Fifteenths and Tenths' and when would Parliament grant them?
A traditional form of direct taxation, representing a proportion (a fifteenth from rural areas, a tenth from urban areas) of the movable goods and property of subjects. Parliament would grant these only when the King needed extraordinary revenue for specific, often military, purposes. They were generally unpopular and a cause of rebellion (e.g., Yorkshire, Cornish).
51
Provide a concise summary of the meetings of Parliament under Henry VII, highlighting their brevity and purpose.
Parliament met infrequently and for short durations (e.g., the first in Nov 1485, the last in 1504). Early Parliaments were crucial for legitimizing his reign and passing attainders against Yorkists. Later Parliaments were mainly for granting revenue for wars or passing specific Acts related to internal security (e.g., against retaining). Their infrequency indicates Henry's preference for executive action via his Council and prerogative rights.
52
What was Henry VII's primary objective regarding the maintenance of law and order after the Wars of the Roses?
His paramount objective was to restore royal authority and stability after decades of civil strife, which had led to widespread lawlessness and the undermining of central control. This involved curbing the power of the over-mighty nobility and establishing efficient, accessible justice.
53
How did Henry VII systematically work towards the reduction in magnate power? Name two key strategies.
He aimed to prevent the nobility from becoming rival power bases by:
1) Strict enforcement of laws against 'retaining': Preventing them from raising private armies.
2)Financial leverage: Extensive use of bonds and recognisances to ensure their loyalty and good behaviour.
3)Limited patronage: Restricting the creation of new peerages and careful distribution of offices.
4)Acts of Attainder: Used to confiscate lands and weaken disloyal families.
54
How did Henry VII utilize figures like the Earl of Surrey and Giles Daubeney to his advantage in controlling the nobility?
- Earl of Surrey (Thomas Howard): Initially imprisoned for supporting Richard III, he was later released and given command in the North (after the Percy family's decline). Henry shrewdly employed him, demonstrating that loyalty could be rewarded, but also placing a former opponent in a key region without extensive land or independent power.
- Giles Daubeney: A loyal servant and 'new man' who commanded Henry's forces and was made Lord Daubeney. He exemplified Henry's preference for trusting capable individuals who owed their rise to him, rather than traditional magnates.
55
How significant was Henry VII's spying network in maintaining law and order?
Henry maintained an extensive network of spies and informants throughout the country, particularly within noble households and among potential dissidents. This enabled him to identify and neutralize threats (e.g., the Stanley conspiracy) before they escalated, contributing significantly to the stability of his regime, though it also fostered an atmosphere of suspicion
56
Clearly distinguish between a bond and a recognizance as tools for noble control.
- Bond: A written obligation by which an individual promised to pay a specified sum of money if they failed to perform a particular action (e.g., maintaining good behaviour, appearing in court). It created a future debt as a deterrent.
- Recognizance: A formal acknowledgement of an existing debt or obligation (often for a past offence or failure), with a financial penalty if the conditions were not met. It was a formal acknowledgment of existing legal ties or liabilities. Both put nobles in financial jeopardy to guarantee loyalty.
57
What was the role of local government under Henry VII, particularly focusing on JPs (Justices of the Peace)?
Local government was crucial for projecting royal authority beyond Westminster. Henry relied heavily on JPs, unpaid local gentry responsible for maintaining law and order, administering minor justice, enforcing royal proclamations, and collecting taxes in their counties. Their powers increased significantly, making them the cornerstone of local governance and crucial for bridging the gap between central and local authority.
58
Describe the structure and effectiveness of the judicial system under Henry VII.
The judicial system encompassed traditional common law courts (King's Bench, Common Pleas) and local courts. However, Henry often bypassed these for sensitive political cases, favouring the Council Learned in Law and the Star Chamber (a judicial offshoot of the King's Council, used against over-mighty subjects who intimidated common law courts). This allowed for more direct and severe royal justice against powerful individuals, but at the cost of legal tradition.
59
Name three primary sources of royal income (ordinary revenue) for Henry VII.
1)Crown Lands: Income from royal estates (significantly increased).
2)Feudal Dues: Revenue from traditional feudal rights (e.g., wardship, marriage, relief).
3)Customs Revenue: Tonnage and Poundage on imports and exports.
4)Also: profits from justice (fines, forfeitures) and French Pension.
60
Explain the concept of 'Feudal Dues' under Henry VII, and specifically define 'Wardship'.
- Feudal Dues were traditional payments owed to the King by his tenants-in-chief, reflecting their feudal obligations. Henry exploited these vigorously.
- Wardship: The King's right to manage the lands and income of a minor (under 21) who inherited property directly from the Crown, until they came of age. The King could also arrange their marriage, often for a fee. Henry maximized revenue from this by taking full control of these assets and marriages.
61
How much did Henry VII's income grow by the end of his reign compared to the start, and what was the significance of the French Pension?
Henry's annual income increased significantly, from around £12,000 at the start of his reign to roughly £42,000 by 1509, with estimates of liquid wealth (plate and jewels) in his treasury reaching £1.5-2 million. The French Pension (from the Treaty of Etaples, 1492) was a regular, valuable income of £5,000 per annum, effectively paid by France to ensure English non-intervention in Italy.
62
What was the traditional historiographical view of Henry VII as the 'Miser King' or 'Rapacious King'?
This traditional view (promoted by Bacon and some contemporaries) depicts Henry as excessively greedy and avaricious, obsessed with accumulating wealth for its own sake, particularly in the latter part of his reign, through harsh and unpopular means like bonds and the Council Learned in Law.
63
Discuss the debate: was Henry VII greedy throughout his reign, or did his methods become harsher towards the end?
While Henry was always financially astute, many historians argue his methods became significantly more rapacious and less restrained in his later years (post-1503, particularly after the death of Queen Elizabeth and Sir Reginald Bray). The increased activity of Empson and Dudley and the sheer volume of bonds and recognisances suggest a hardening of policy, possibly driven by paranoia about security or simply a relentless pursuit of wealth.
64
Explain the 'Revisionist view' of Henry VII's financial policies.
This view argues that Henry's financial policies were not simply driven by personal greed but by a pragmatic and necessary desire to:
1)Secure the dynasty: A wealthy king was a strong king, less vulnerable to challenges.
2)Restore royal authority: By making the Crown financially independent of Parliament and nobility.
3)Ensure national stability: A solvent Crown could better fund justice and defence. They see his wealth as a tool for political control.
65
How did Henry VII's management of Crown lands contribute to his increased income?
Henry implemented a highly efficient management system for Crown lands, often centralizing administration and employing diligent officials. He also passed Acts of Resumption (e.g., 1486), which recovered royal lands previously alienated or granted away. This ensured maximum revenue extraction from the extensive royal estates
66
How do different historians' estimates of Henry VII's revenue highlight the challenges of interpreting his financial success?
Historians offer varying figures for Henry's income and reserves, reflecting the complexity of royal accounts and different interpretations of 'wealth' (e.g., cash vs. plate and jewels vs. bonds owed). While all agree his wealth increased substantially, the precise figures can vary, leading to debates about the scale of his 'miserliness' versus his strategic accumulation of resources.
67
What was the 'political price' of Henry VII's successful growth in income?
While financially robust, the methods Henry used (especially the Council Learned in Law, bonds, and arbitrary fines) generated immense resentment and fear among the nobility and wealthy gentry. This political price contributed to the initial popularity of Henry VIII, who quickly abolished the Council Learned and executed Empson and Dudley, demonstrating a political sensitivity his father lacked.
68
How does R. Green's 'New Monarchy' thesis relate to Henry VII's financial policies?
Green argues that Henry VII's financial policies are a prime example of the 'New Monarchy' – a more centralized, efficient, and financially independent monarchy that emerged from the chaos of the medieval period. Henry's systematic approach to finance, utilizing prerogative rights and bureaucratic institutions, is seen as a key aspect of this 'modernization' of the state
69
Compare the views of S. Chrimes, David Starkey, and S. Gunn on Henry VII's financial policies.
- S. Chrimes: A more traditional view, acknowledging Henry's financial acumen but perhaps leaning towards the 'miser' view, emphasizing his focus on accumulation.
- David Starkey: Tends to emphasize Henry's meticulous and intelligent approach to finance, seeing it as crucial for establishing dynastic security and state power, rather than just personal greed.
- S. Gunn: Often presents a more balanced or revisionist view, seeing Henry's policies as a pragmatic and necessary response to the Crown's weak financial position post-Wars of the Roses, emphasizing their political purpose alongside the accumulation of wealth.
70
What were Henry VII's three overarching foreign policy aims
1) National Security: Primarily to secure his dynasty and prevent foreign powers from supporting pretenders or invading England.
2) Recognition & Legitimacy: To gain international acceptance of the Tudor dynasty from other European monarchs.
3) Economic Prosperity: To promote English trade, especially the lucrative cloth trade with Burgundy. These aims were often interconnected.
71
Identify the key European powers with which Henry VII engaged in foreign policy and explain why they were significant.
- France: Major power, traditional enemy, potential threat to English independence and supporter of pretenders.
- Burgundy/Netherlands: Crucial for English trade (cloth), also a base for Yorkist exiles (Margaret of Burgundy).
- Spain (Castile & Aragon): Emerging unified power, attractive as an anti-French ally.
- Holy Roman Empire (HRE): Loose collection of states, but its Emperor Maximilian was a key player with dynastic links to Burgundy.
- Scotland: England's northern neighbour, traditional 'Auld Alliance' with France, constant border threat.
- Ireland: English 'fiefdom', but largely self-governing, a potential base for rebellion or pretenders.
- Italian States: Less direct engagement, but an area of broader European power struggles where England sought influence.
72
What was the status of Brittany in relation to France at the start of Henry VII's reign, and why was its independence important to England?
Brittany was the last independent fiefdom within France. Its independence was vital for English security as it prevented France from controlling the entire Channel coast, providing a potential invasion route or naval base against England. England traditionally sought to maintain a weak France.
73
Describe the 'French threat' to Brittany and to Henry VII.
Charles VIII of France sought to absorb Brittany, which would significantly increase French power and reduce English security. For Henry, a strong France could easily support pretenders (e.g., Warbeck initially) or threaten English borders, undermining his dynastic security.
74
Who was Anne of Brittany, and what was her significance in Anglo-French relations?
The young Duchess of Brittany. Her marriage was key to Brittany's independence. Her proposed marriage to Maximilian (HRE) and subsequent forced marriage to Charles VIII of France were central to the 'Breton Crisis', frustrating English and HRE attempts to preserve Breton independence.
75
What was the significance of the marriage-by-proxy between Anne of Brittany and Maximilian of the Holy Roman Empire?
It was an attempt by Brittany (and supported by England) to secure its independence from France by aligning with the powerful Holy Roman Emperor. However, France quickly nullified it, demonstrating their determination to absorb Brittany.
76
What was the Treaty of Redon (1489) and what were its terms for Anglo-Breton relations?
An agreement between England and Brittany. Henry VII agreed to send 6,000 troops to defend Brittany against France, on the condition that Anne of Brittany would not marry or conclude treaties without English consent. It demonstrated Henry's initial commitment to Breton independence.
77
How did Charles VIII of France resolve the Breton crisis from his perspective, and what impact did it have on Henry VII's foreign policy?
Charles VIII quickly defeated Breton forces and forced Anne of Brittany to marry him (1491), effectively absorbing Brittany into France. This was a strategic defeat for Henry VII, as his main objective (Breton independence) was lost, forcing him to reconsider his approach to France.
78
How did Perkin Warbeck's presence in France influence Henry VII's approach to the country?
Warbeck initially gained French support, posing a direct dynastic threat. This significantly influenced Henry's decision to invade France in 1492, demonstrating his willingness to use force to remove support for pretenders and achieve diplomatic aims.
79
What was the purpose of the English invasion of France in 1492, and how was it strategically timed?
Henry VII launched a late-season invasion of France (Siege of Boulogne) after Brittany was already lost. It was strategically timed to coincide with France's preoccupation with Italy, allowing Henry to exert pressure without a prolonged war. The true aim was not conquest, but to force a favourable peace settlement and secure a pension.
80
What were the key terms and significance of the Treaty of Etaples (1492)?
Peace treaty between England and France. Key terms:
1) France agreed to withdraw support for Perkin Warbeck.
2)France agreed to pay Henry a substantial annual pension (£5,000) (arrears from the Treaty of Picquigny, 1475) to compensate for intervening in Brittany. Significance: Secured Henry's dynasty against a major foreign threat, provided vital income, and allowed Henry to focus on other challenges without a costly war.
81
Why were Burgundy and the Netherlands economically vital to England, particularly concerning exports like cloth?
The Netherlands (particularly the trading cities of Antwerp & Bruges) was the primary market for English cloth exports, which constituted over 90% of England's trade. Access to these markets and amicable relations were crucial for England's economic prosperity and royal customs revenue.
82
Who was Margaret of Burgundy, and why was she a persistent dynastic threat to Henry VII?
The formidable sister of Edward IV and Richard III. A staunch Yorkist, she actively harbored and funded pretenders (Lambert Simnel, Perkin Warbeck) from her court in Burgundy, providing them with resources and legitimacy, consistently undermining Henry's security.
83
What was the connection between Maximilian (Holy Roman Emperor) and Burgundy/the Netherlands?
Maximilian gained control of the Netherlands (including Burgundy) through his marriage to Mary of Burgundy. This meant his court was also a potential haven for Yorkist pretenders and a source of diplomatic complications for Henry VII.
84
How did Philip of Burgundy and Isabella of Castile's marriage complicate Anglo-Burgundian relations, and how was it related to Perkin Warbeck?
Philip (Maximilian's son, ruler of the Netherlands) and his wife Juana (daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain) had control over Burgundy. Their early protection of Perkin Warbeck (due to Margaret of Burgundy's influence) led Henry VII to impose a trade embargo on Burgundy, severely damaging English trade and demonstrating Henry's willingness to sacrifice economic gain for dynastic security.
85
What was the Intercursus Magnus (1496) and its significance for Anglo-Burgundian trade?
A major commercial treaty that formally ended the trade embargo imposed by Henry VII. It restored normal trading relations between England and the Netherlands, guaranteeing free trade for English merchants (except for Flanders). It was a vital step in restoring economic prosperity and reflected a diplomatic triumph for Henry once Philip agreed to abandon Warbeck.
86
Explain the context and nature of the Intercursus Malus (1506).
A highly favourable (or 'evil') trade agreement forced upon Philip of Burgundy when he was shipwrecked in England. It granted English merchants extensive trading rights in the Netherlands, effectively eliminating customs duties for them, making it almost too advantageous for England. It was short-lived and largely reverted to the Magnus after Philip's death, highlighting Henry's opportunistic diplomacy.
87
How did the death of Isabella of Castile (1504) impact Henry VII's diplomatic relations with the Holy Roman Empire and Spain?
Isabella's death created a succession crisis in Spain between Ferdinand (King of Aragon) and Philip (ruler of Burgundy/Netherlands, married to Juana, Isabella's heir to Castile). This allowed Henry to play one side against the other. It initially strengthened his link with Philip and Juana (and therefore Burgundy), but also increased his diplomatic isolation later when Ferdinand became more powerful in Spain.
88
Who were Ferdinand and Isabella, and why was an alliance with them attractive to Henry VII?
The 'Catholic Monarchs' who unified the powerful kingdoms of Aragon and Castile, making Spain a dominant European power. An alliance with them was attractive to Henry as a strong anti-French counterweight and offered significant international recognition for his new dynasty.
89
What were the key terms of the Treaty of Medina del Campo (1489)?
A landmark Anglo-Spanish alliance with four key terms:
1) Mutual defence treaty (against France).
2)Marriage alliance between Henry's son Arthur and Ferdinand & Isabella's daughter Catherine of Aragon.
3)Reduction of trade duties between England and Spain.
4)Spain would not support pretenders.
90
What were the problems with the implementation of the Treaty of Medina del Campo?
The treaty was slow to be fully implemented due to:
1)Ferdinand and Isabella's reluctance to commit to the marriage until Henry's dynastic security was proven (e.g., after the defeat of Simnel/Warbeck).
2)Disputes over Catherine's dowry.
3)Ongoing support for Warbeck from Maximilian (related to Spanish dynastic interests).
91
When did the marriage between Arthur and Catherine of Aragon take place, and what was its immediate significance?
November 1501. It was the culmination of Henry VII's Spanish alliance, providing great prestige, dynastic security, and cementing England's place in the European political landscape. It signified the successful international recognition of the Tudor dynasty.
92
What was the catastrophic impact of the death of Arthur (1502) on Henry VII's foreign policy and dynastic plans?
Arthur's premature death undermined the entire Spanish alliance structure. It left Henry with only one male heir (Henry VIII) and threatened the valuable Spanish connection. This forced Henry into complex negotiations for Catherine's marriage to the new Prince of Wales.
93
How did the death of Isabella of Castile (1504) and the subsequent shipwreck of Philip and Juana (1506) create a diplomatic opportunity for Henry VII?
Isabella's death led to a Castilian succession dispute between Ferdinand (her widower) and her daughter Juana (married to Philip of Burgundy/HRE). When Philip and Juana were shipwrecked in England in 1506, Henry capitalized by forcing Philip into the Treaty of Windsor and securing the handover of the Earl of Suffolk.
94
What were the key terms and consequences of the Treaty of Windsor (1506)?
1) Intercursus Malus: A highly favourable trade agreement for England.
2)Return of the Earl of Suffolk: Philip agreed to hand over the leading Yorkist claimant.
3)Proposed marriage for Henry VII to Philip's sister, Margaret of Savoy.
4) Proposed marriage for Henry's daughter Mary to Philip's son Charles (later Charles V). Consequences: A major diplomatic triumph for Henry, securing the last significant Yorkist threat and strengthening ties with the HRE.
95
How did the death of Philip (1506) and the perceived 'madness of Juana' lead to Henry VII's diplomatic isolation at the end of his reign?
Philip's death meant Juana's 'madness' (often exaggerated) gave Ferdinand of Aragon sole control of Spain, diminishing the value of Henry's alliance with the now-dead Philip. Ferdinand then allied with France (Treaty of Blois 1505) and rejected Henry's proposals for marriage to Catherine (widow of Arthur), leaving Henry increasingly isolated and strategically vulnerable in the last years of his reign.
96
Explain the interlinking of royal marriages, foreign policy, and the succession in Henry VII's reign.
Royal marriages were the cornerstone of Tudor foreign policy. They were used to secure alliances (e.g., Arthur & Catherine for Spain), gain international recognition, enhance prestige, and crucially, secure the succession by producing heirs. The death of Arthur severely disrupted these interlinking plans, forcing Henry to re-evaluate and pursue new marriage alliances to protect his dynastic legacy.
97
Characterize Anglo-Scottish relations for much of Henry VII's reign.
Generally tense but cordial relations with periods of open hostility. Scotland often allied with France (the 'Auld Alliance'), posing a constant threat to England's northern border and providing a base for pretenders. Henry aimed for long-term peace and stability.
98
Who was James IV of Scotland, and how did he initially challenge Henry VII?
The young King of Scotland. He initially provided significant support and hospitality to Perkin Warbeck (1495-97), even arranging a marriage for him and granting him lands. This led to a Scottish invasion of England in 1496 in support of Warbeck.
99
How did the Cornish Tax Rebellion (1497) indirectly affect Henry VII's policy towards Scotland and Warbeck?
The Cornish rebellion (triggered by taxes for defence against Scotland) forced Henry to divert resources and attention from the Scottish border. It also highlighted the domestic unpopularity of foreign wars and incentivized Henry to seek a rapid diplomatic resolution with Scotland to free up resources
100
What was the Treaty of Ayton (1497) and its immediate significance for Anglo-Scottish relations?
A truce signed between England and Scotland (brokered by Spain) that formally ended Scottish support for Perkin Warbeck and hostilities. It effectively led to Warbeck's abandonment by James IV and his eventual capture in England. It laid the groundwork for a more lasting peace.
101
What was the significance of the execution of Warbeck (1499) for Henry's Scottish policy?
Warbeck's execution removed the last significant dynastic threat that Scotland could exploit against Henry. This paved the way for a more stable and permanent peace treaty, as the main cause of Anglo-Scottish friction was removed.
102
What was the major dynastic alliance between England and Scotland, and what was its symbolic name?
The marriage of Henry VII's eldest daughter, Margaret Tudor, to James IV of Scotland in 1503. This was formalized by the Treaty of Perpetual Peace (1502), intended to permanently end hostilities. It was a massive diplomatic coup for Henry, securing the northern border and planting a Tudor heir in the Scottish line of succession.
103
What was the Treaty of Perpetual Peace (1502) and its long-term significance?
A landmark Anglo-Scottish treaty that formally established peace, following the Treaty of Ayton. It included the marriage of Margaret Tudor and James IV. While 'perpetual' was optimistic (war broke out under Henry VIII), it was the first peace treaty between England and Scotland for nearly two centuries not caused by a truce. It marked a new era of relations and directly led to the eventual Stuart succession to the English throne (James I/VI).
104
What was 'The Pale' in Ireland, and what was its significance for English control?
A small area of English control around Dublin, the only part of Ireland directly under English law and administration. Beyond the Pale, Ireland was dominated by powerful Gaelic chieftains and independent Anglo-Irish magnates (like the Earl of Kildare), making English authority largely nominal.
105
Who were the Fitzgeralds, specifically the Earl of Kildare, and why were they a problem for Henry VII?
The dominant Anglo-Irish magnate family in Ireland. Gerald FitzGerald, the Earl of Kildare, was the most powerful Irish noble and had strong Yorkist sympathies, supporting Lambert Simnel and Perkin Warbeck. This made him a significant threat to Henry's dynastic security.
106
How did Perkin Warbeck's presence in Ireland challenge Henry VII's authority?
Ireland was Warbeck's initial base of operations (1491), where he gained significant support from Kildare and Irish chieftains. This demonstrated Ireland's potential as a springboard for pretender invasions and the weakness of English control there, forcing Henry to intervene decisively.
107
What was Henry VII's initial strategy for Ireland, involving Prince Henry as Lieutenant and Edward Poynings as Deputy?
Henry's initial strategy was to assert direct English control. He appointed his young son, Prince Henry, as the nominal Lieutenant of Ireland. The real power was exercised by his capable English deputy, Sir Edward Poynings, who was sent to Ireland in 1494 with a significant force to restore order and control the Earl of Kildare.
108
What was Poynings' Law (1494) and what was its objective?
A key Act passed by the Irish Parliament under Poynings' supervision. It stated that no future Irish Parliament could be summoned, nor any legislation passed, without the prior approval of the English King and his Council. Its objective was to prevent the Irish Parliament from becoming a base for Yorkist opposition and to assert full English parliamentary authority over Ireland.
109
Why did Henry VII's initial Irish strategy prove to be an 'expensive strategy'?
Maintaining a large English army and administration under Poynings was financially unsustainable for the Crown. The direct rule approach was costly, both in terms of military expenditure and administrative overheads, without yielding significant returns.
110
How did Henry VII's policy towards the Earl of Kildare change, and what was the outcome of this shift?
Recognizing the expense and impracticality of direct rule, Henry changed strategy. He eventually reinstated Kildare as Deputy in 1496, accepting that governing Ireland effectively required the cooperation of powerful local magnates. This marked a shift towards a more pragmatic, less costly approach, trading some direct control for local peace and stability.
111
What was the result of Henry VII's eventual policy in Ireland (reinstating Kildare), and why is it sometimes described as establishing 'peaceable & cheap authority'?
By restoring Kildare and securing his loyalty, Henry achieved relatively stable and peaceful governance in Ireland at a much lower cost. Kildare, now reliant on Henry's favour, became a loyal agent of royal power, suppressing local rebellions and preventing further support for pretenders. This proved to be a more practical and effective approach than expensive direct military intervention.
112
Describe the fundamental, hierarchical structure of English society at the end of the 15th century, and how the concept of 'caste' relates to it.
English society was deeply hierarchical and largely static, often described as a 'Great Chain of Being' or similar to a 'caste' system, where one's birth determined their social standing. It moved from the Monarch at the top, down through the Nobility, Gentry, Churchmen, Yeomen, Citizens, and finally Labourers and Vagrants. Social mobility was extremely limited, though not entirely absent, particularly for the 'middling sort'.
113
What were Sumptuary Laws and what was their purpose in late 15th-century England?
Laws that dictated what clothes, food, and other luxuries individuals were permitted to wear or consume based on their social rank. Their purpose was to reinforce social hierarchy, prevent social emulation (lower classes mimicking the dress of their betters), and maintain social order by visually distinguishing between different ranks.
114
Explain the concept of the Feudal System as it still existed in late 15th-century England and its relation to the Monarch.
While evolving, remnants of the Feudal System persisted. The Monarch was theoretically at the apex, owning all land. Land was granted in exchange for military service and loyalty. Henry VII rigorously revived and exploited outdated feudal dues (e.g., wardship, marriage) to reassert his authority and increase royal revenue, demonstrating its continuing, if modified, importance.
115
Define the Nobility (or Peerage) under Henry VII, including their social and economic characteristics.
The highest social class below the monarch, holding hereditary titles (e.g., Duke, Earl, Baron) and possessing vast landed estates. They were typically wealthy, powerful, and held significant regional influence, often maintaining private armies (retaining). Their political power derived from their lands, military capabilities, and traditional role in the Royal Council and House of Lords. Henry VII significantly reduced their numbers and sought to control them.
116
What constituted the Gentry class in late 15th-century England, and why was it 'not a fixed caste'?
Below the nobility, the gentry comprised substantial landowners (knights, esquires, gentlemen) who lived off their estates but did not hold hereditary peerages. They were increasingly educated and served in local administration (e.g., as JPs, MPs). It was 'not a fixed caste' because ambitious commoners with wealth (e.g., successful merchants, lawyers) could acquire land and ascend into the gentry, making it the most fluid social stratum.
117
Distinguish between Yeomen and Labourers within the commoner class.
- Yeomen: Freeholders or prosperous tenant farmers who owned or rented a significant amount of land (typically 40 shillings freehold). They were often literate, independent, and formed a respected backbone of rural society, sometimes serving in local administration.
- Labourers: Landless agricultural workers, relying on wages for their subsistence. They formed the vast majority of the rural population and were highly vulnerable to economic fluctuations and harvest failures.
118
Describe the Citizens and the Bourgeoisie within urban society.
- Citizens: Respected inhabitants of towns, often with specific rights and privileges tied to their residence or occupation (e.g., freedom of the city).
- Bourgeoisie: The wealthier merchant and craft guild masters within urban areas. This 'middling sort' was growing in economic influence, engaging in trade, finance, and manufacturing, and often held positions in local government (e.g., mayors, aldermen). They were a vital source of Crown loans and taxation.
119
Who were Vagrants/Beggars, and how were they viewed in late 15th-century society?
The poorest and most marginalized group, lacking stable employment or homes. They were generally viewed with suspicion and often seen as a social problem, leading to punitive measures (e.g., vagrancy laws) rather than systematic poor relief. Their numbers could increase during economic depressions.
120
Describe the Church hierarchy in England at this time.
Headed by the Pope, but within England, it was led by Archbishops (Canterbury and York), then Bishops, followed by Abbots (heads of monasteries), and finally parish priests and the lower clergy. The Church was a powerful institution, both spiritually and politically, with significant wealth and lands.
121
How did the impact of the Black Death (14th century) still influence English society and the balance of power in the late 15th century?
The Black Death (1348-49) drastically reduced the population, leading to a severe labour shortage. This increased the bargaining power of labourers, who could demand higher wages and sometimes access to more land, contributing to the decline of traditional serfdom and providing some social mobility. It weakened the hold of traditional feudal lords.
122
Explain Bastard Feudalism and why it was seen as a threat to royal authority.
A modified form of feudalism where nobles maintained private armies (retainers) not through land grants, but through cash payments or grants of office. It was a threat because these forces offered loyalty to their noble lords rather than the King, contributing to the factionalism and private warfare characteristic of the Wars of the Roses.
123
How did Henry VII's use of loyal 'new men' like Giles Daubeney contrast with and help to curb the power of traditional nobility?
Daubeney was a loyal military commander and administrator who owed his rise entirely to Henry. By promoting such figures to positions of power and trust, Henry reduced his reliance on powerful, often independent, magnates, thereby strengthening his personal control over government and the military, and undermining traditional noble networks.
124
Discuss Henry VII's policy towards Retaining (for and against) and the effectiveness of his Acts against retaining.
Henry was against retaining because it allowed nobles to raise private armies that could be used against the Crown. He passed strong Acts against retaining (e.g., 1487, 1504), requiring royal licences for any retinues and imposing heavy fines. These acts were generally effective, culminating in the major fine against Lord Burgavenny, demonstrating Henry's determination to crush this practice and ensure the King held a monopoly on armed force.
125
What was the significance of the fine against Lord Burgavenny regarding retaining?
In 1507, Lord Burgavenny was fined £70,000 for illegal retaining. While the full amount was not extracted, it demonstrated Henry's severe intent and willingness to impose crippling financial penalties on even leading nobles to enforce his laws against retaining, serving as a powerful deterrent to others.
126
How did figures like Sir Reginald Bray (and Empson/Dudley) represent Henry VII's approach to controlling the nobility through professional administration?
Bray was a key 'new man' and financial administrator, instrumental in the early Council Learned in Law. His (and later Empson/Dudley's) work in rigorously collecting royal dues and enforcing bonds/recognisances directly undermined the traditional independence of the nobility by subjecting them to strict financial obligations and royal scrutiny, using legal and bureaucratic means rather than just military force.
127
How did Henry VII's approach to granting Knighthoods differ from previous monarchs, and what was its significance?
Henry was very sparing with the creation of new peerages and knighthoods, especially compared to his predecessors who had created many during the Wars of the Roses. This limited the growth of the nobility, kept the honours highly valued, and concentrated power in fewer, more controlled hands, thereby restricting the number of potential rivals.
128
What was the social and political standing of Churchmen in late 15th-century England, and how did Henry VII utilize them?
Senior churchmen (bishops, abbots) held significant power, wealth, and influence, sitting in the House of Lords. They were often highly educated and literate, making them valuable administrators. Henry VII heavily relied on churchmen for his government (e.g., John Morton, Richard Fox), appointing them to key secular roles, as they were loyal, capable, and unlike nobles, could not build rival dynasties.
129
Who was Richard Fox, and what was his role in Henry VII's government?
Bishop of Winchester and Lord Privy Seal. He was one of Henry VII's most trusted and capable councillors, a classic 'new man' who rose through merit. He played a significant role in both domestic administration and foreign policy, particularly in diplomacy, demonstrating Henry's reliance on skilled clerical bureaucrats.
130
Describe the 'middling sort' within the commoner class and their growing social and economic significance.
A growing group comprising prosperous yeomen farmers, craftsmen, master artisans, and successful merchants/traders (the bourgeoisie). They were increasingly literate, economically active, and played a greater role in local government (JPs, town officials), forming a vital backbone of stable society and a source of royal revenue.
131
What was the primary occupation of the majority of the population (peasants), and what were 'grazing rights'?
The vast majority were peasants engaged in subsistence farming. They often lived in villages and cultivated strips of land. 'Grazing rights' referred to the traditional common rights of peasants to graze their animals on common land (unenclosed village land). Enclosure movements, which removed these rights, were a source of social tension.
132
Describe the significant regional divisions within England at the end of the 15th century.
- England was far from a unified state, with distinct regional identities, customs, and economic activities.
- Northerners & Southerners: A clear divide, with the North often seen as wilder and more remote, relying on pastoral farming. The South was generally wealthier, more densely populated, and focused on arable farming and trade (especially the cloth industry).
- Other divisions included the Welsh Marches, the West Country, East Anglia, etc., each with unique characteristics and local government structures.
133
How did local government structures reflect regional divisions and Henry VII's attempts to centralize power?
While Henry aimed for greater central control (e.g., via JPs), local government still adapted to regional conditions. In the North, the Council of the North (under the Earl of Surrey) was used. In others, reliance was placed on loyal local gentry through the JP system. Regional autonomy was a reality Henry had to work with, rather than simply eradicate.
134
What were the common causes of social discontent and rebellions during Henry VII's reign?
The primary causes were:
1) Taxation: Resentment over extraordinary parliamentary grants for foreign policy (e.g., Yorkshire, Cornish rebellions).
2)Feudal dues and bonds: The harsh enforcement of royal financial policies.
3)Dynastic discontent: lingering Yorkist sympathy, often exploited by pretenders.
4) Economic hardship: Though less prominent than taxation, poverty could fuel unrest.
135
What were the causes and significance of the Yorkshire Rebellion (1489)?
Caused by resentment over a tax granted by Parliament to fund military campaigns in Brittany. The North felt the tax was for a Southern issue. Significant: The Earl of Northumberland (who was supposed to collect the tax) was murdered. Henry ruthlessly suppressed it, but the incident highlighted regional resentment against central government policy and taxation.
136
What were the causes and significance of the Cornish Rebellion (1497)?
Caused by resentment over a tax granted by Parliament to fund campaigns against Scotland. Cornish people felt it was not their concern and marched on London, attracting around 15,000 rebels. Significance: It was a serious threat, demonstrating the depth of popular opposition to taxation and the Crown's vulnerability to widespread discontent. The rebels were decisively defeated at Blackheath, and leaders like Lord Audley were executed.
137
Describe the general state of the English economy at the end of the 15th century and the importance of trade.
Primarily agrarian, dominated by subsistence farming. However, trade, particularly the export of wool and finished cloth, was increasingly vital for national prosperity and royal customs revenue. England was a growing, but still secondary, European economic power.
138
What was the estimated population of England during Henry VII's reign, and how was it distributed between countryside and urban dwellers?
The population was still relatively small, estimated at around 2.5 to 3 million. The vast majority (around 90%) lived in the countryside, engaged in agriculture. Urban dwellers concentrated in a few major towns (e.g., London, Norwich, Bristol), which served as centres for trade and administration.
139
What was the dominant industry in England, and what other emerging industries existed?
The dominant industry was agriculture. However, the wool and cloth industry was rapidly growing in importance. Other smaller but significant industries included metal (tin, lead, coal), shipbuilding (for trade and defence), and rudimentary papermaking
140
Characterize agriculture in England during this period, distinguishing between arable farming and other forms.
Agriculture was the backbone of the economy. Arable farming (cultivation of crops like wheat, barley, rye) was dominant, particularly in the more fertile south-east. Mixed farming and pastoral farming were also significant in different regions. Most farming was still subsistence-based.
141
Explain the relative importance and characteristics of the wool and cloth industry in England.
It was England's most important manufacturing industry and primary export. The industry was largely decentralized, with spinning and weaving often done as a cottage industry in rural areas. The move from raw wool exports to finished cloth exports was a key trend, adding more value to the English economy.
142
Define the agrarian economy of England, and how it was still significantly impacted by the Black Death.
The agrarian economy was based on land cultivation and animal husbandry. It was still recovering from the Black Death (mid-14th century), which had caused a drastic population decline. This resulted in higher wages for labourers and more available land, contributing to some social mobility and changes in land use (e.g., enclosure for sheep farming).
143
What was the trend towards sheep farming in the late 15th century, and what was its social impact?
Driven by the profitability of the wool trade, there was a growing trend towards converting arable land to pasture for sheep farming. This often led to enclosure of common lands, displacing agricultural labourers and causing social discontent and poverty in some areas.
144
Describe the characteristics of England's overseas trade and its geographical orientation.
Overseas trade was vital for royal customs revenue and economic growth. It was heavily concentrated with the Low Countries (Netherlands/Burgundy), particularly through Antwerp and Bruges. English exports were primarily cloth, wool, and some raw materials; imports included wine, luxury goods, and timber.
145
Differentiate between the 'Lowland' zone and 'Highland' zone in England in terms of their agricultural practices.
- 'Lowland' zone (South-East): More fertile, better communications, dominated by arable farming (cereals) and open-field systems.
- 'Highland' zone (North and West): More remote, poorer soil, dominated by pastoral farming (sheep, cattle) and often less traditional farming practices. This regional specialisation influenced economic development and social structures.
146
Define 'Open-field husbandry' and 'common rights', and explain their social importance.
- Open-field husbandry: A traditional medieval system where agricultural land was divided into unfenced strips, cultivated by individual villagers.
- Common rights: Traditional rights held by villagers to graze animals, collect firewood, or gather resources on common land. These were crucial for the subsistence of poorer villagers. The enclosure movement threatened these rights, causing social tension.
147
Describe the structure and role of the cloth trade as England's primary export.
The cloth trade was a vast network, from sheep farming to spinning, weaving, fulling (cleaning and thickening cloth), and dyeing. It provided significant employment and revenue. The shift from raw wool exports to finished cloth exports (which added more value) was a key development, reflecting England's move towards a more sophisticated economy.
148
Who were the Merchants of the Staple and the Merchant Adventurers, and what was their respective significance in the cloth trade?
- Merchants of the Staple: Controlled the export of raw wool, their importance declined as finished cloth exports grew. They operated out of Calais (English possession).
- Merchant Adventurers: A more powerful and influential company that dominated the export of finished cloth from London. They were a key royal ally and often involved in trade negotiations, demonstrating the shift towards manufactured goods as the main export.
149
What was the importance of London and Antwerp as centres for the English cloth trade?
- London: The undisputed financial and commercial capital of England, handling the majority of English trade. It was the hub for the Merchant Adventurers.
- Antwerp: The main European trading hub in the Netherlands, where English cloth was sold and from where European goods were imported. Control and access to Antwerp were crucial for England's commercial prosperity.
150
Who were The Hanseatic League, and what was Henry VII's policy towards them?
A powerful medieval trading confederation of German cities that held significant trading privileges in England (e.g., at the Steelyard in London). Henry VII aimed to reduce their influence and special privileges, as they posed a threat to English merchants, but was cautious due to their commercial power and the need for their support in foreign policy.
151
Beyond cloth, name two other significant industries in England during this period.
1) Metallurgy: Mining of tin (Cornwall), lead (Pennines), and coal (North-East, South Wales). Coal production was increasing.
2) Shipbuilding: Though smaller, vital for both commercial shipping and royal naval power.
3) Other industries included brewing, papermaking, and leather goods.
152
What was Henry VII's overall approach to trade, and how did it balance sectional interests with national interests?
Henry's approach was primarily pragmatic and self-interested, seeking to boost royal customs revenue and strengthen England's economic position. He generally prioritized dynastic security over immediate commercial gain, as seen with the trade embargo on Burgundy. He sometimes balanced the sectional interests of specific merchant groups (like the Merchant Adventurers) against broader diplomatic needs.
153
Why did Henry VII impose a trade embargo on Burgundy in the 1490s, and what was its immediate impact?
He imposed the embargo (1493-96) because Margaret of Burgundy was harbouring and supporting Perkin Warbeck. This was a direct example of dynastic interests prevailing over commercial interests. The immediate impact was severe disruption to the English cloth trade, causing significant economic hardship for merchants and weavers, but demonstrating Henry's determination to remove the Warbeck threat.
154
What were the key terms and significance of the Intercursus Magnus (1496)?
A major commercial treaty with Burgundy that formally ended the trade embargo. It restored normal trading relations, guaranteeing free trade for English merchants in the Netherlands (except for Flanders). It was a vital diplomatic and economic success, showing Henry could achieve both security and prosperity.
155
Explain the nature and significance of the Intercursus Malus (1506).
A highly advantageous (and thus 'evil' or 'bad' for the Burgundians) trade treaty forced on Philip of Burgundy when he was shipwrecked in England. It granted English merchants extensive trading rights, effectively removing all customs duties in the Netherlands. While strategically brilliant for Henry, it was commercially exploitative and largely reverted after Philip's death, highlighting Henry's opportunistic foreign policy in trade.
156
How did the capture of the Earl of Suffolk (Edmund de la Pole) relate to Henry VII's trade diplomacy with Burgundy?
The return of the Earl of Suffolk, the last significant Yorkist claimant, was secured as part of the Treaty of Windsor (1506), which also included the Intercursus Malus. This showed how Henry consistently used trade agreements as leverage to achieve his primary aim of dynastic security.
157
What was the state of Anglo-French commercial relations under Henry VII?
Back: Generally overshadowed by political and dynastic concerns. While the Treaty of Etaples (1492) secured a French pension, direct commercial ties were less prominent than with Burgundy/Netherlands. Henry was less focused on boosting trade with France compared to ensuring French non-interference with pretenders.
158
What were some weaknesses in Henry VII's trading policy?
1)Prioritization of dynastic security: His willingness to impose costly trade embargoes (e.g., against Burgundy) for political ends, damaging merchant interests.
2) Lack of overall strategy: Policies could appear ad hoc, driven by immediate political needs rather than a consistent economic plan.
3)Limited innovation: While effective, his policies were often reactive rather than pioneering new trade routes or markets (unlike Spain/Portugal).
159
What were the Navigation Acts passed by Henry VII, and what was their purpose?
A series of Acts (e.g., 1485, 1489) that aimed to promote English shipping and reduce reliance on foreign vessels. They stipulated that certain goods (e.g., Gascon wine, woad) could only be imported on English ships if English ships were available. Their purpose was to stimulate the English merchant marine and shipbuilding industry, though their effectiveness was limited due to foreign retaliation.
160
What was the broader context of European exploration during Henry VII's reign, particularly by Spanish & Portuguese explorers?
This was the era of major maritime expansion, with Spain and Portugal pioneering new routes to the Americas and Asia (e.g., Columbus, da Gama). They were actively establishing global empires and trade networks. England was a relatively minor player in this grander European context.
161
Who was John Cabot, and what was the significance of his voyages sponsored by Henry VII?
An Italian mariner commissioned by Henry VII. In 1497, he sailed west and landed in Newfoundland (North America), making him the first European since the Vikings to land there. Significance: Provided England with a claim to North America, laid the foundation for future English exploration and colonization, and sought a new route to Asia.
162
Who was William Weston, and what was his lesser-known contribution to English exploration?
An English merchant and explorer who may have sailed with Cabot on his second voyage (1498) or led his own expedition to the Americas. His voyages are less well-documented than Cabot's but signify continued English, albeit limited, interest in transatlantic exploration.
163
How did prices and wages generally behave in England during Henry VII's reign?
Generally, there was relative economic stability. Prices for consumables remained relatively stable. Wages for skilled labourers (e.g., building craftsmen) maintained or even slightly improved their purchasing power, reflecting the post-Black Death labour shortage. Agricultural labourers' wages were more vulnerable to fluctuations.
164
What was the purchasing power of wages for building craftsmen and agricultural labourers during Henry VII's reign, and what does it suggest about prosperity?
- Building craftsmen: Generally saw their purchasing power (how much they could buy with their wages) improve or remain strong due to the demand for skilled labour and relatively stable prices. This suggests a period of modest prosperity for some skilled urban workers.
- Agricultural labourers: Their purchasing power was more vulnerable, highly dependent on harvest yields and local conditions. While they also benefited from labour scarcity, their overall economic stability was less secure than that of skilled craftsmen.
165
Summarize the overall state of relative economic stability during Henry VII's reign.
Despite some localized depressions (e.g., due to trade embargoes or harvest failures), the period was characterized by relative economic stability and slow growth compared to the volatile late 15th century. Henry's policies provided a stable framework, particularly for trade.
166
Explain the key principle: 'Dynastic interests prevailed over commercial interests' in Henry VII's economic and foreign policy. Provide an example.
- This principle meant that Henry was willing to sacrifice or compromise short-term economic gains (commercial interests) if it served his paramount goal of securing the Tudor dynasty (dynastic interests).
- Example: The trade embargo on Burgundy (1493-96) caused economic hardship for English merchants but was imposed to pressure Philip of Burgundy to abandon Perkin Warbeck, demonstrating Henry's priority of dynastic security.
167
What was the overarching "place of religion" for ordinary people in late 15th-century English society?
Religion, specifically the Catholic Church, was absolutely central and pervasive in daily life, dictating social routines, moral codes, and even the calendar. It provided meaning, comfort, and structure from birth to death, dominating individual and community existence.
168
What was the significance of the parish church as the core of religious and social life for ordinary people?
The parish church was the focal point of the local community. It wasn't just for worship; it served as a social gathering place, a venue for local meetings, and often hosted popular entertainment and festivals. It was integral to the community's identity and provided a sense of belonging.
169
What was the fundamental place of religion in late 15th-century English society for ordinary people?
Religion was absolutely central and pervasive in daily life, dictating moral codes, social rituals, and understanding of the world. The Catholic Church was the dominant institution, shaping birth, marriage, and death, providing comfort, and offering the only path to salvation. Life revolved around the religious calendar and the local parish church.
170
Describe the multi-faceted role and influence of the Church in social life beyond purely spiritual matters.
The Church was far more than a spiritual guide; it was a primary institution of social control, education, charity, and even entertainment. It acted as the main social welfare provider, recorded births/deaths, and administered justice through its own courts. It touched every aspect of human existence.
171
What was the significance of the parish church to ordinary people?
The parish church was the focal point of the local community, serving not only for worship but also as a meeting place, a social hub, and a centre for local events. It was a place for social interaction, news exchange, and even popular entertainment (e.g., parish ales, mystery plays).
172
Explain the function of Guilds & Confraternities and their relationship to the Church.
These were lay organizations closely tied to the Church. Guilds were associations of craftsmen or merchants that regulated trade, provided mutual support, and had a strong religious dimension, often funding chantry chapels. Confraternities (or religious guilds) were voluntary associations of lay people who came together for charitable purposes, mutual prayer, and to fund religious services or rituals. They reinforced community cohesion and religious devotion.
173
How did the Church act as an agent of social control?
Through its moral teachings, the threat of excommunication, the administration of sacraments, and the confession system, the Church exerted immense moral and social discipline. It also provided a ready-made structure for maintaining order and conformity through its network of parish priests.
174
What employment opportunities did the Church provide in late 15th-century England?
The Church was a significant employer. It provided roles for vast numbers of clergy (priests, monks, friars), but also for lay administrators, lawyers, scholars, artists, musicians, and labourers involved in maintaining church property. It was a major route for social mobility for some.
175
Describe the significant political role of the Church in Henry VII's reign.
The Church was a powerful political force. Senior clergy (Archbishops of Canterbury & York, Bishops) held vast lands, administered justice through their own courts, and sat as Lords Spiritual in Parliament. Many highly educated churchmen (e.g., John Morton, Richard Fox) served in key secular government positions, acting as royal advisors and administrators, demonstrating the close intertwining of Church & State.
176
Explain the concept of the Pope's authority and the term 'Erastian' in relation to the English Church.
The Pope was the spiritual head of the entire Catholic Church, claiming ultimate authority over all Christians. However, English monarchs often sought to exert control over the Church within their own realms, particularly regarding appointments and finances. 'Erastian' refers to the view that the State should have supremacy over the Church in ecclesiastical matters. While not fully Erastian, Henry VII exerted significant influence over appointments and finances, often limiting papal interference.
177
What were a Diocese and the significance of Canterbury & York?
A Diocese was an administrative area under the jurisdiction of a bishop. England had two provinces: Canterbury (headed by the Archbishop of Canterbury, who was Primate of All England) and York (headed by the Archbishop of York). These were the two most powerful ecclesiastical offices in England, holding immense spiritual and temporal power.
178
How did the relationship between Church & State manifest under Henry VII, referencing key figures?
The relationship was largely cooperative, with the King typically appointing loyal and capable churchmen (like John Morton and Richard Fox) to high offices in both the Church and his government. Henry generally sought to control the Church within his realm, ensuring its wealth and influence supported his regime rather than becoming a rival power base, thus balancing papal authority with royal prerogative.
179
What was the significance of the Parish Church as the focus of local community and religious life?
The parish church was the spiritual, social, and economic hub of the village or town. It was where people were baptized, married, and buried. It hosted services like The Mass, communal activities, ale festivals, and was central to the collective identity and charitable efforts of the local community.
180
Explain the key concepts of Christian belief: Grace, Purgatory, and the Seven Sacraments.
- Grace: God's divine favour, believed to be necessary for salvation and imparted through the sacraments.
- Purgatory: A state after death where souls that are not wholly pure undergo purification by suffering before entering heaven. This belief drove much lay piety, including prayers and masses for the dead.
- Seven Sacraments: Rituals believed to convey God's grace, including Baptism, Confirmation, Eucharist (The Mass), Penance, Anointing of the Sick, Holy Orders, and Matrimony.
181
What was The Mass and the doctrine of Transubstantiation?
The Mass was the central act of Catholic worship, commemorating the Last Supper. Transubstantiation was the core doctrine stating that during the Mass, the bread and wine consecrated by the priest miraculously transform into the actual body and blood of Christ, while retaining their outward appearance. This belief gave immense power and sanctity to the priesthood.
182
What was Corpus Christi and its significance in religious devotion?
A major annual Catholic festival celebrating the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist (the consecrated bread and wine). It involved elaborate processions, often organized by Confraternities and Guilds, through towns and cities, demonstrating communal devotion and social cohesion.
183
Describe the role of Lay people in the Church's social function, particularly as benefactors.
Lay people (non-clergy) were actively involved in supporting the Church. Many acted as benefactors, donating money, land, or goods to their parish churches, cathedrals, or monasteries. These donations often funded building projects, new vestments, ornaments, or the endowment of chantries for prayers for their souls.
184
What were Chantries and the concept of Intercession?
Chantries were chapels or altars (often within churches) endowed by individuals or families for priests to say daily masses for the souls of the deceased, to speed their passage through Purgatory. Intercession was the belief that the prayers of the living (especially priests) and saints could influence God and help the souls of the dead. This was a core aspect of late medieval piety.
185
Beyond direct worship, what were some popular communal activities associated with the parish as the focus of local community?
Ale festivals (parish ales) were social gatherings in the church or churchyard, providing communal entertainment and raising funds for parish upkeep. Pilgrimages to holy sites (e.g., the Tomb of Thomas Becket at Canterbury) were major social and religious events. Rogation Sunday (processions blessing the fields) reinforced the community's agricultural life and spiritual dependence.
186
To what extent did individual religious experience exist alongside communal worship?
While communal worship was paramount, individuals also engaged in personal piety. This included private prayer, reading devotional texts (if literate), owning personal prayer books (primers), commissioning masses, and making individual pilgrimages. These activities reflected a personal relationship with God within the framework of collective belief.
187
Describe the two main types of Religious Orders in England: Monks & Monasteries and Friars.
-Monks & Monasteries: Monks lived cloistered lives in self-sufficient monastic communities (e.g., Benedictines, Cistercians). They dedicated themselves to prayer, contemplation, and scholarly work, running schools, hospitals, and managing vast estates. They were highly influential, particularly the abbots who sat in the House of Lords.
- Friars: Unlike monks, friars (e.g., Dominicans, Franciscans) lived among the people, begging for alms, preaching, and performing charitable works. They were active in urban areas.
188
What were the main criticisms and characteristics of Lollardy?
Lollardy was a proto-Protestant movement inspired by John Wycliffe (14th century). Its key criticisms included:
-Scepticism about transubstantiation.
-Emphasis on direct access to the Bible in English, rather than through the clergy.
-Criticism of the wealth and corruption of the Church.
-Scepticism about pilgrimages and the cult of saints. Despite persecution, it persisted as an underground movement, primarily among the laity (non-clergy).
189
Define Heresy and describe the official response to Lollardy under Henry VII.
Heresy is a belief or doctrine that is contrary to the official teachings of the Church, punishable by secular law (often death by burning). Under Henry VII, Lollardy was a persistent but minority concern. The Church and State actively suppressed it through ecclesiastical courts, punishments, and occasional executions, demonstrating the firm commitment to Catholic orthodoxy.
190
What was Anticlericalism and to what extent was it prevalent in Henry VII's reign?
Anticlericalism refers to opposition or resentment towards the clergy, often stemming from grievances about their wealth, privilege, perceived corruption, or moral failings. While instances of anticlericalism existed (e.g., disputes over tithes, complaints about benefit of clergy), it was not widespread or deeply entrenched enough to pose a significant threat to the Church's authority in Henry VII's reign. Most people were generally content with their priests and parish life.
191
How does the term 'Laity' relate to the issues of Lollardy and Anticlericalism?
The Laity refers to all members of the Church who are not clergy. Both Lollardy (which sought to empower the laity through direct biblical access) and Anticlericalism (which was largely driven by lay grievances against clergy) highlight the growing importance and evolving relationship of the non-clerical population with the institutional Church.
192
Define Humanism and explain its connection to the Renaissance.
Humanism was an intellectual movement originating in the Renaissance (a cultural rebirth primarily in Italy). It emphasized the study of classical texts (Greek and Roman), advocated for a more human-centred approach to learning (focusing on human potential and achievements), and promoted civic virtue and eloquence. It sought to reform education, ethics, and theology through original sources.
193
Identify key English Humanists: William Grocyn, Thomas Linacre, John Colet, Desiderius Erasmus, and Thomas More.
-William Grocyn & Thomas Linacre: Pioneering English scholars who studied in Italy, bringing back Greek learning.
-John Colet: Dean of St Paul's, key educational reformer, biblical scholar, criticized scholasticism.
-Desiderius Erasmus: Leading European humanist, a friend of More, who visited England and highly praised English scholarship.
-Thomas More: Statesman, lawyer, and renowned humanist scholar, author of 'Utopia'. He was a central figure in the intellectual life of the period.
194
What was Scholasticism, and how did Humanism offer a challenge to it?
Scholasticism was the dominant medieval philosophical and theological method, characterized by rigorous logical analysis, dialectic, and reliance on established authorities (e.g., Aristotle, Church Fathers). Humanism challenged it by advocating for direct engagement with original classical and biblical texts, a more practical and eloquent style of learning, and a focus on human experience rather than abstract logic.
195
Describe the developments in education during Henry VII's reign and the widening educational opportunities.
Education slowly expanded beyond clerical training. There was a growth in Grammar schools, often founded by Guilds or wealthy benefactors, providing education (primarily Latin) for boys from broader social backgrounds. University education (Oxford, Cambridge) also developed, with some nascent humanist influences alongside traditional scholasticism.
196
What was the nature of Drama in late 15th-century England, specifically Mystery Plays?
Mystery Plays (or Cycle Plays) were popular religious dramas performed by local guilds in towns (e.g., York, Chester). They depicted biblical stories, from creation to the Last Judgement, serving to educate and entertain the largely illiterate population about Christian theology. They were a significant communal cultural event.
197
Describe changes in music during Henry VII's reign and identify key examples.
Music was central to both church and court life. There was a growth in polyphonic (multi-part) choral music. The Eton Choirbook (compiled c. 1500) contains a vast collection of complex sacred music. Court musicians, including those in the minstrels' gallery, played a variety of instruments (e.g., shawm - a wind instrument, sackbut - early trombone). There was a gradual increase in secular (non-religious) music too.
198
Characterize Art & Architecture during this period, particularly the Perpendicular style and Gothic influences.
English art and architecture were still dominated by the late Gothic style, but specifically by the unique Perpendicular style. This was characterized by elaborate fan vaulting, large windows, intricate stonework, and an emphasis on vertical lines. The construction of Henry VII's spectacular Lady Chapel, Westminster Abbey, is a prime example, showcasing the peak of this style.
199
What was the significance of Printing and Caxton in late 15th-century England?
William Caxton established the first printing press in England in 1476. Printing revolutionized the dissemination of knowledge, increasing literacy and making books more accessible and cheaper. It facilitated the spread of humanist ideas, although much of Caxton's output was traditional (e.g., Chaucer's works, chivalric romances).
200
How did humanist influences contribute to broader changes in taste in arts and learning?
Humanist influences gradually fostered a greater appreciation for classical literature, a more analytical approach to texts, and a shift towards elegant prose and poetry. While not a dramatic overnight change, it laid the groundwork for the fuller English Renaissance of Henry VIII's reign, promoting more secular and individualized expressions in art and literature, and a more critical approach to learning.
201
Summarize the strengths and weaknesses of the Church in Henry VII's reign.
-Strengths: Deeply ingrained in society, powerful institution, provided social welfare, widespread popular support and piety, major landowner, provided key government administrators.
-Weaknesses: Some accusations of corruption/pluralism (holding multiple benefices), a degree of anticlericalism (though not widespread), Lollardy persisted (though suppressed), slow to adopt humanist reforms (compared to continent), wealth could cause resentment.
202
Describe the relationship between the Church & education & culture under Henry VII.
The Church was the dominant force in education (founding schools, universities), and a major patron of the arts (architecture, music, stained glass). Most cultural expression was religious in nature (e.g., Mystery Plays, sacred music). Humanist thought, while nascent, was largely pursued by educated churchmen and lay scholars who often aimed to reform the Church from within, showing a close, if evolving, relationship.
203
To what extent was Henry VII's initial consolidation of power a product of shrewd political manoeuvring rather than mere fortune?
Primarily shrewd manoeuvring. While Bosworth was fortuitous (Stanleys' intervention), Henry immediately:
-Pre-dated his reign (Aug 21, 1485) to declare Yorkists traitors.
- Secured his coronation before Parliament met, asserting divine right.
- Used the first Parliament to pass Acts of Attainder against Yorkists.
- Delayed marriage to Elizabeth of York until after his coronation to deny her claim as source of his authority.
- Swiftly dealt with initial risings (e.g., Lovell & Staffords).
- Embarked on a Royal Progress to demonstrate his authority.
204
How effectively did Henry VII deal with pretenders and dynastic claimants, and what does this reveal about his approach to security?
- Lambert Simnel (1487): Exposed as a fraud, defeated at Battle of Stoke (decisive victory, ended Wars of Roses). Henry used the Queen's mother, Elizabeth Woodville, to debunk him.
- Perkin Warbeck (1491-99): The most persistent threat. Henry used diplomacy (Treaty of Etaples with France, Intercursus Magnus with Burgundy), spies (Stanley conspiracy), and eventually force to isolate and capture him. His eventual execution (1499) with Warwick removed all major Yorkist dynastic threats.
- Edmund de la Pole, Earl of Suffolk: The last significant Yorkist claimant. Henry used diplomacy (Treaty of Windsor, 1506) to secure his extradition, demonstrating his international leverage. This showcased his long-term strategic thinking and preference for financial rather than overt military solutions where possible.
205
Discuss the concept of the 'Tudor Myth' and propaganda in legitimising Henry VII's reign.
The 'Tudor Myth' was a pervasive narrative (championed by historians like Polydore Vergil and Francis Bacon) that portrayed Henry VII as a divinely chosen saviour who ended the Wars of the Roses, bringing peace and stability after decades of chaos.
- Propaganda: The Tudor Rose (Lancaster & York united), the union of the white and red roses, his emphasis on his Welsh heritage (descent from Cadwaladr), and careful control of public image all served to bolster his legitimacy and foster loyalty, crucial given his weak hereditary claim.
206
Analyse Henry VII's shift towards 'personal monarchy' and his increasing reliance on 'new men' in his Council.
Henry moved away from relying on over-mighty magnates towards a more centralized, efficient personal monarchy. He preferred a smaller, professionalized Royal Council staffed by 'new men' (e.g., John Morton, Richard Fox, Sir Reginald Bray) from the gentry or professional classes. These bureaucrats owed their positions solely to the King, ensuring their absolute loyalty, diligence, and expertise, contrasting with the often self-interested loyalties of the nobility.
207
Evaluate the effectiveness and controversy surrounding the Council Learned in Law.
Established in 1495, it was highly effective in enforcing the King's prerogative rights and maximizing royal revenue, often bypassing common law procedures. Led by the notorious Empson and Dudley, it ruthlessly pursued bonds and recognisances, feudal dues, and fines, making it deeply controversial and a major source of resentment among the nobility and gentry. While financially successful, it incurred a significant 'political price' due to its arbitrary nature.
208
To what extent was Parliament an effective instrument of royal power under Henry VII?
Parliament was an effective, albeit infrequent (summoned only 7 times), instrument of royal will. Its primary roles were to:
- Legitimize Henry's reign (e.g., pre-dating reign).
- Grant Acts of Attainder.
- Vote extraordinary revenue (e.g., Fifteenths & Tenths for war).
- Pass legislation for law and order (e.g., against retaining). It was not a legislative initiator and served the King's pragmatic needs, rather than acting as a major deliberative body.
209
How successful were Henry VII's financial policies in transforming the Crown's solvency, and what were the main methods employed?
Highly successful. Henry transformed the Crown's finances, leaving a solvent treasury of reportedly £1.5-2 million and significantly increasing annual income (from ~£12k to ~£42k). Methods included:
- Switching from the slow Exchequer to the more efficient Chamber system.
- Aggressive exploitation of feudal dues (wardship, marriage).
- Systematic collection of customs revenue (Tonnage and Poundage granted for life).
- Extraction of bonds and recognisances (via the Council Learned in Law).
- Receipt of the French Pension (Treaty of Etaples).
- Efficient management and recovery of Crown lands. His financial success, however, came at a political cost due to the perceived 'rapacious' nature of his methods.
210
What were Henry VII's overarching foreign policy aims, and how did dynastic security influence them?
Primary aims were:
- Dynastic Security: Preventing foreign powers from harbouring pretenders.
- International Recognition: Securing legitimacy for the Tudor dynasty.
- Economic Prosperity: Promoting English trade. Dynastic security often prevailed over commercial interests (e.g., trade embargo against Burgundy due to Warbeck). He pursued a largely defensive and pragmatic foreign policy, avoiding costly continental adventures.
211
Evaluate Henry VII's diplomatic strategy towards France and Brittany.
Initially aimed to uphold Breton independence (Treaty of Redon, 1489) against French expansion. However, after France absorbed Brittany (1491), Henry shrewdly launched a brief, late-season invasion (1492) to force the Treaty of Etaples. This secured the French pension and removed French support for Warbeck, demonstrating his pragmatism and preference for profitable diplomacy over prolonged warfare.
212
How did Henry VII manage relations with Burgundy/the Netherlands, considering both economic and dynastic imperatives?
A complex relationship. Economically vital due to the cloth trade (Antwerp). Dynastically problematic due to Margaret of Burgundy's support for Yorkist pretenders. Henry initially imposed a costly trade embargo (1493-96) to pressure Burgundy over Warbeck. Once Warbeck was expelled, he secured the favourable Intercursus Magnus (1496) and later the highly advantageous Intercursus Malus (1506) (though short-lived), showing his ability to balance and exploit opportunities for both trade and dynastic security.
213
Assess the success of Henry VII's alliance with Spain via marriage.
Initially a major success with the Treaty of Medina del Campo (1489) and the marriage of Arthur to Catherine of Aragon (1501), securing powerful international recognition and an anti-French alliance. However, Arthur's premature death (1502) threatened this. The subsequent succession struggles in Spain after Isabella's death (1504) and the death of Philip (1506) left Henry diplomatically isolated by the end of his reign, as Ferdinand became less amenable to the proposed Henry-Catherine remarriage.
214
How did Henry VII achieve long-term peace with Scotland, and what was its dynastic significance?
After initial tensions and Scottish support for Warbeck (leading to the Cornish Rebellion), Henry achieved a landmark peace. The Treaty of Ayton (1497) (a truce) was followed by the Treaty of Perpetual Peace (1502), cemented by the marriage of his daughter Margaret Tudor to James IV of Scotland (1503). This was a major dynastic coup, securing the northern border and laying the foundation for the future Stuart succession to the English throne.
215
Explain Henry VII's evolving policy towards Ireland, particularly his handling of the Earl of Kildare.
Ireland (beyond the Pale) was a base for Yorkist pretenders (Perkin Warbeck) due to the influence of the powerful, Yorkist-sympathising Earl of Kildare. Henry initially sought direct control, appointing his son as Lieutenant and sending Sir Edward Poynings to impose English law (Poynings' Law, 1494). This proved too expensive. Henry pragmatically reverted to appointing Kildare as Deputy (1496), securing his loyalty and achieving 'peaceable & cheap authority', demonstrating his flexible and cost-effective approach to outlying territories.
216
Describe the hierarchical structure of English society at the end of the 15th century, including the roles of Nobility, Gentry, and Churchmen.
Society was a rigid hierarchy:
- Monarch: Apex of the feudal system.
- Nobility/Peerage: Small, hereditary landowning elite. Henry reduced their numbers and controlled them through Acts of Attainder, bonds and recognisances, and strict laws against retaining.
- Gentry: Below nobility, a growing class of substantial landowners, increasingly involved in local administration (JPs). More fluid, not a fixed caste.
- Churchmen: Powerful and wealthy, with senior clergy (e.g., John Morton, Richard Fox) playing key political roles, often favoured by Henry for administrative positions.
- Commoners: Vast majority, including Yeomen (prosperous farmers), Citizens/Bourgeoisie (urban merchants/craftsmen), and Labourers/Vagrants (poorest).
217
How significant were regional divisions in England, and what impact did they have on Henry VII's rule?
England was characterized by strong regional identities (e.g., Northerners & Southerners), differing agricultural practices (e.g., arable in 'Lowland' South, pastoral in 'Highland' North), and varying levels of royal control. These divisions were a source of tension, notably in the Yorkshire (1489) and Cornish (1497) rebellions, both sparked by taxation for distant conflicts. Henry used regional councils (e.g., Council of the North) and JPs to extend central authority, acknowledging and adapting to local conditions.
218
Analyse the main causes of social discontent and rebellions during Henry VII's reign.
Primarily caused by:
- Taxation: For unpopular foreign wars (Yorkshire 1489 for Brittany, Cornish 1497 for Scotland).
- Financial exactions: Harsh application of feudal dues, bonds, and recognisances by officials like Empson and Dudley, creating resentment among the wealthy.
- Lingering Yorkist sympathy: Exploited by pretenders (Simnel, Warbeck) but often a pretext for deeper socio-economic grievances. These rebellions, though ultimately suppressed, highlighted the limits of royal authority and the need for careful financial management.
219
Evaluate the extent of economic development under Henry VII, focusing on the cloth trade and other industries.
The economy remained primarily agrarian, but the wool and cloth industry was increasingly dominant, shifting from raw wool to finished cloth exports, which added significant value.
- Key developments: Growth of the Merchant Adventurers, increasing trade with Antwerp.
- Other industries: Slow growth in metal (tin, lead, coal), shipbuilding.
- Impact of Black Death: Still felt, leading to higher wages for labourers and some land availability. Overall, a period of relative economic stability and slow growth, though Henry often prioritized dynastic interests over commercial interests (e.g., trade embargoes).
220
What was the significance of English exploration during Henry VII's reign, particularly the voyages of John Cabot?
English exploration was limited compared to Spain and Portugal, but significant for laying future claims. John Cabot, an Italian commissioned by Henry, reached Newfoundland in 1497. This established England's claim to North America, though the immediate economic benefits were minimal. It represented a nascent interest in overseas expansion that would blossom under later Tudors.
221
Describe the pervasive place of religion in late 15th-century English society and the multifaceted role of the Catholic Church.
Religion was central to daily life. The Catholic Church was the dominant institution, providing moral framework, social cohesion, and the only path to salvation.
- Parish church: Hub of local community, worship (Mass, Transubstantiation), popular entertainment (ale festivals, Mystery Plays), and charity.
- Social role: Acted as a major employer, provider of social welfare, and an agent of social control.
- Political role: Senior churchmen (e.g., John Morton, Richard Fox) held key government roles, demonstrating the close intertwining of Church and State.
222
To what extent did Lollardy and Anticlericalism pose a significant threat to the Church's authority under Henry VII?
Lollardy (proto-Protestant heresy) persisted as an underground movement, critical of Church wealth and practices, but was ruthlessly suppressed and remained a minority concern. Anticlericalism (resentment of clergy) existed in instances (e.g., over tithes, clerical privilege), but was not widespread or deep-seated enough to pose a fundamental challenge to the Church's authority. Overall, the Church was robust and widely supported.
223
Analyse the emergence and influence of Humanism in England during Henry VII's reign.
Humanism, part of the wider Renaissance, was nascent but growing. English scholars like William Grocyn and Thomas Linacre brought Greek learning from Italy. John Colet promoted educational reform, and foreign scholars like Desiderius Erasmus visited, interacting with figures like Thomas More. Humanism challenged traditional Scholasticism by emphasizing classical texts, eloquence, and a more critical approach to learning. Its influence was primarily among educated elites, particularly churchmen and scholars, laying groundwork for future cultural shifts.
224
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226
What was the significance of Henry VII's daughters' marriages for the long-term dynastic security of England?
His daughters' marriages were crucial for securing international alliances and providing alternative lines of succession:
- Margaret Tudor's marriage to James IV of Scotland (1503): This was the Treaty of Perpetual Peace and eventually led to the Stuart succession to the English throne (James VI of Scotland became James I of England in 1603), fulfilling Henry's long-term dynastic vision.
- Mary Tudor's proposed marriage to Charles (later Charles V): Though unfulfilled due to Henry VII's death, it highlights his constant pursuit of powerful continental alliances to further secure his line.
227
How did the death of Elizabeth of York (1503) impact Henry VII's approach to the succession in his final years?
Elizabeth's death removed the last surviving link to the Yorkist claim and plunged Henry into personal grief. It also left him without a Queen and a clear female line of succession. This prompted him to:
- Desperately seek a new marriage for himself (e.g., to Margaret of Savoy, or Juana of Castile) to secure more male heirs, indicating some anxiety about his own mortality and the sole reliance on Prince Henry.
- It arguably contributed to his increased paranoia and more aggressive financial policies in his later years.
228
What was Henry VII's financial legacy for his son, Henry VIII?
A formidable financial legacy. Henry VII left:
- A solvent treasury with an estimated £1.5-2 million in cash, plate, and jewels.
- A significantly increased royal income (from ~£12,000 p.a. to ~£42,000 p.a. by 1509).
- A highly efficient Chamber system for financial management.
- A network of revenue-generating practices (e.g., bonds and recognisances, feudal dues) ready for continuation. This provided Henry VIII with enormous financial security and independence, allowing him to pursue more ambitious foreign policies and domestic reforms early in his reign.
229
Characterize the political legacy Henry VII bequeathed to Henry VIII.
Henry VII left a largely stable and centralized personal monarchy with:
- A weakened and compliant nobility, whose private armies (retaining) had been largely crushed.
-An efficient, loyal, and experienced Council (dominated by 'new men' like Empson and Dudley, who Henry VIII quickly sacrificed to gain popularity).
-A largely peaceful and settled kingdom, free from major dynastic threats or internal rebellions (though resentment over financial policies lingered).
-A clear understanding of royal authority and the expectation of firm rule.
230
What was Henry VII's diplomatic and international legacy for Henry VIII?
Henry VII left England:
- With a strong, albeit sometimes strained, network of alliances (e.g., with Spain via Catherine of Aragon, with Scotland via Margaret Tudor's marriage).
- A significant French pension (Treaty of Etaples).
- A clear understanding of England's place in European politics, having navigated a complex web of alliances without becoming embroiled in ruinous wars.
- Crucially, a secure northern border with Scotland. While he was somewhat isolated at the very end, he had firmly established England as a legitimate, albeit not dominant, player on the European stage.
231
What was the nature of the Crown's relationship with its subjects at the end of Henry VII's reign, particularly regarding unpopularity?
While the Crown was financially strong and politically stable, the methods used to achieve this had generated significant unpopularity and resentment, particularly among the nobility, gentry, and wealthy merchants. The activities of the Council Learned in Law, and the rigorous enforcement of financial bonds and feudal dues, led to many feeling oppressed. This paved the way for Henry VIII's popular initial move to execute Empson and Dudley and signal a 'new start'.
232
How did Henry VII's legacy shape Henry VIII's initial priorities and approach to kingship?
Henry VIII inherited a secure, wealthy, and stable kingdom, allowing him to:
- Spend freely on courtly lavishness and pursue ambitious foreign policy (e.g., wars with France) without immediate financial constraint.
- Distance himself from his father's more unpopular financial methods by executing Empson and Dudley, thereby gaining immediate popular support.
- Focus on establishing his own image as a 'Renaissance Prince' rather than solely as a consolidator of power, confident in the stability his father had bequeathed him.
