History Flashcards
(191 cards)
1
Q
Why is knowing history important?
A
Knowing history will enable us to prevent us repeating past mistakes
2
Q
What did George Santayana say/quote about history
A
He famously said, ‘those who do not know history are doomed to repeat it’
3
Q
What about the character of Santayana indicated an inherent flaw about history
A
Santayana was a harvard professor, and in him saying this, it shows that:
Having good scientific roots are important when it comes to history
When from prestigious universities, your words are ‘important’
History is often based on authority because we have to believe someone –> potential to be flawed
4
Q
Why is there a possibility that there is no such thing as ‘the history’ or the ‘historical truth’
GIve an example
A
Largely because history is written from different perspectives, so it is impossible to get an entirely objective perspective
I.e. finding books which tells the history of what happened after the 2nd world war from a western and eastern point of view –> differing perspectives depending on culture. As a result, there cant be an ABSOLUTE history
5
Q
What is the role of forgetting and blending in memory in history
A
A main factor which can prevent an absolute history is the faultiness of both memory and also the presence of memory blending (when original info and misleading info can get blended together in the persons memory –> misinformation)
The interference by time, discussion, decay and forgetting and other later added (mis)information, can influence the miswriting of history–> hard to determine if the history written down is the actual history
6
Q
What is presentist bias? Give examples
A
Presentist bias is the tendency to discuss and analyse past ideas, people and events in terms of the present
For example, when we have a negative perspective on looking at slavery in an era where the practice was acceptable, would be a presentist bias
Or viewing a traditional social structure as irrational, without considering that it may have been an efficient system that allows a community to survive
In other words, it is the invalid interpretation of the past using present day as a reference. Thinking about history only from the perspective of the present day
7
Q
What is personal bias?
A
Personal bias refers to learned beliefs, opinions, or attitudes that people are unaware of and often reinforce stereotypes.
8
Q
How can personal and presentist bias shape history
A
With regards to presentist bias, it emphasises the relevance of history to the present. Thus, things that don’t seem too relevant will be paid little attention –> excluding it from the ‘history books’ –> misleading portrayal of the past
Meanwhile, personal bias can influence history through influencing its reconstruction in accordance to the persons own preferences
9
Q
What is the impact of Ibn Al - Haytham
A
He was also known as Alhazen
His most famous text which has been translated was ‘the optics of Ibn Al Haytham’
He helped discover the science of ‘optics’ and how we can see things
He helped revolutionise the study of optics and laid foundations for the scientific method
10
Q
Discuss the bias/flaws present through the perspective of the west
A
Western perspective is the practice of viewing and presenting the world from a European or generally Western perspective. This limits our recording of history and understanding of other cultures
It focusses solely on the Western experience. As a result, it may lead to history having less of a focus on other cultures –> misrepresentation of history
11
Q
What is zeitgeist? Give an example
A
Zeitgeist = ‘essence’ or ‘spirit’ of a particular time = ‘Spirit of the times’
In other words, it refers to the general intellectual, moral and cultural climate that is typical of an era
For example, the zeitgeist of England in the Victorian period included a belief in industrial progress
12
Q
How does zeitgeist influence history?
A
Zeitgeist influences history as history will depict a certain period of time based on the zeitgeist of the time.
I.e. recognising the Victorian period as a period of industrial progress (becauuse that was the zeitgeist of the time)
13
Q
How are names given to historical ‘facts’
A
Names typically evolve with tie, and are made much later.
I.e. WW1 was considered the Great war and the only war until WW2 occurred
Naming also relies on political ideological influences, as well as cultural/linguistic context
14
Q
What is the general consensus of when Psychology started
A
Started with Wilheim Wundt when he established the first psychological lab in Lepzig in 1879. This is considered the official start of psychology as a separate and distinct scientific discipline
Often WIlliam James is mentioned as well
15
Q
What is the flaw with asking when psychology started
A
However, the question is very open ended, and we can’t know the true answer.
Because for example, Wundt also had supervisors who also had supervisors, could they then be considered the start of psychology?
Additionally, a lot of other disciplines may be a part of psychology history. It’s not just limited to the formation of a psychological lab (i.e. trepanation)
16
Q
Assess the statement that academic psychology is not the same as the start of ‘general’ psychology
A
This is because the general study of the mind (psychology) can be traced all the way back in history, for example to ancient philosophers who inquire about the nature of the mind, consciousness, and human behaviour, such as Aristotle, Plato and others. This can be considered the ‘general psychology’
However, the start of academic psychology (experimental psychology) wasn’t until Wilhem Wundt formed his first lab in 1879
17
Q
What is the concept of structuralism?
A
Suggests that the goal of psychological research is to study the structure of the mind and consciousness.
18
Q
Who was famous who supported structuralism?
A
Wilhem Wundt, and was built upon by his student Edward TItchener
19
Q
How did Wilhem Wundt argue that structuralism should be studied?
A
Through a concept called introspection
20
Q
What is introspection?
A
It is a technique to ‘look into the brain’ and its the search of the primitive experiences that constitute thought
21
Q
How is introspection achieved?
A
Involves looking inward and examining one’s own conscious thoughts and experiences. By looking at the content of one’s own mind, you could gain insights into underlying structure of mental processes
22
Q
Why was introspection complicated?
A
We had to name the building blocks of an object, which we might not have known the name of
Observers had to be highly trained
Looks at pure sensations; auditory, visual, tactile, and time
It is very subjective, and involves self reports on sensations, feelings, emotions etc.
23
Q
Explain introspection through the example of a pencil
A
In this case, introspection would want the observer to describe the characteristics of a pencil, without reporting the name of the subject, but instead stating the ‘raw data’ such as the colour, hue, shape etc.
24
Q
Who assisted Wundt in further spreading the idea of structuralism
A
His student; Edward Titchener(1867-1927), was a student of Wundt, and introduced structuralism and introspection to the americans
25
Why was William James at Harvard considered important?
Because he was considered the founder of functionalism, as opposed to structuralism, and was strongly against the structuralism concept
26
What was William James' problem with the structuralist approach??
His issue with structuralism was that we have a 'stream of consciousness', and we can't just freeze/divide curent thoughts to analyse them into little building blocks, as there is then still a continuous arrival of new thoughts that intefere.
Also he argued that structuralism was too subjective and was therefore unreliable
27
What is functionalism?
Argues that the structure of the mind might not be so important, but poses the question of what is the function/purpose of the mind and consciousness
28
What is the importance of academic networks and interactions?
These are important as it allows for knowledge exchange + collaborative research.
It is also important as in the academic world, most researchers need a supervisor --> interaction between academics.
In terms of Wundt, for example, he needed to have a supervisor, and his one was Ernst Weber; a german physician
29
What is the Just Noticeable Difference (JND). Give an example
This was discovered by Ernst Weber (1795-1978)
Suggests that the change in a stimulus that will be just noticeable is a constant ratio of the original stimulus. The JND is the minimum difference between two stimuli that is just detectable by a person
I.e. the JND between two stimuli is the function of the magnitude of the original stimulus - the larger the original stimulus, the larger the notiecable difference needs to be for it to be detected
I.e. if 5g is the noticeable difference between 100 and 105 grams, than for 1000 grams, it will be 1050 grams for the noticeable difference --> 50 grams --> proportionally increases
30
What is psychophysics?
It aims to quantitatively investigate the relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they effect --> making connections between matter and mind.
31
Who founded psychophysics?
The Godfather of psychophysics is seen as Gustav Theodor Fechner
but additionally, Weber and Wundt were important in psychophysics
32
What is the role of other disciplines in the history of psychology?
We have all these people in different fields such as philosophy, physics, medicine, who all have part of psychology in their field. The question rises then, are they part of the history of psychology?
If so, the history of psychology could actually go back further than Wundt
33
What is trepanation
Trepanation is the ancient process of creating a hole in the skull
34
What were the potential reasons for trepanation in ancient times?
Treatment of head injuries
Healing symptoms of diseases such as epilepsy
Ritual reasons
Spiritual reasons
To increase bloodflow and to prevent the development of degenerative diseases such as Alzheimers
LETTING OUT EVIL SPIRITS IN PEOPLE WHO WERE THOUGHT TO BEHAVE ABNORMALLY (MENTAL DISORDERS)
35
How can trepanation be considered part of the history of psychology?
LETTING OUT EVIL SPIRITS IN PEOPLE WHO WERE THOUGHT TO BEHAVE ABNORMALLY (MENTAL DISORDERS) --> in this sense, it can be considered part of the study of the mind --> history of psychology --> as far back as 6500BC
36
What is psychology?
It is the study of the brain, mind and behaviour
37
What does it mean by brain functions in the definition of psychology?
Neurobiological processes that generate mental processes and states
38
What does it mean by mind/mental processes in the definition of psychology?
Individual sensations, perceptions , memories thoughts, incentives, emotions and all subjective experiences
39
What does it mean by behaviour in the definition of psychology?
Variety of actions which can be observed
40
What are the biases about what lay people think 'psychology' is?
Lay people holds misconceptions mainly due to media portryals, pop culture, or maybe even spoiled by perspectives by Freud
Some lay people stereotype psychology as the ones simply focussed on analysing and fixing people's problems when in reality it is the study of so much more, not just therapy
41
What is the role of Egyptians and other cultures in the history of psychology?
Egyptians wanted to find out the localisation in the brain/body --> wanted to find the source of the soul, the brain, and the source of thinking,
In Egyptian culture, the heart was considered the seat of the soul (Hegemonikon)
In their opinion, feelings, thinking etc. came from the heart not the brain.
Thus, during mummification, the heart stayed in the body, whereas the liver, kidneys. lungs, stomach were placed back or stored in jars next to the body
However, the brain wasn't considered a very cruicial part --> brain was discarded in mummification. They knew it was important but not too important. This knowledge came from the Edwin Smith Papyrus
42
What is the Edwin Smith Papyrus?
It was said to be written by Imhotep. It was pieced together by Edwin Smith. Among other things, it was about the head wounds of soldiers. This led to the following conclusions:
Brain lesions lead to distal symptoms
left side of the brain controls right side of the body and vice versa
Brain is responsible for speech
Touching the brain can lead to epileptic seizures
It was important as it showed that even Egyptian cultures were looking at the localisation of the brain, and how there are areas that seem to be highly specialised in a specific task
43
How is the Edwin Smith Papyrus significant to psychology history?
It can be argued that this extends the study of psychology (brain, mind and behaviour), all the way back to Ancient Egyptian times
44
Over time, how did our understanding of the localisation of the brain develop?
Frontal lobe = thought, planning, movement
Parietal lobe = touch, spatial relations
Temporal lobe = hearing, memory
Occipital lobe = vision
45
Who first described the idea of ventricles
Herophilus of Chalcedon, around 300BC described the ventricles
46
What are the different types of ventricles, and what are they?
Lateral ventricle = the largest ventricle with one on the left and one on the right (#1 & #2)
Third ventricle = the one in the centre
Fourth ventricle = the one below the other 3 ventricles
47
Why was the discovery of ventricles important?
Provided a milestone in the anatomical understanding of the brain. It also led to the 3 cell doctrine
48
What was the 3 cell doctrine?
There existed 3 cells in the brain:
Cell 1 = collection of information from senses
Cell 2 = cognition / thinking
Cell 3 = memory
49
What is functional localisation?
It is the idea that certain bodily functions are controlled by certain locations/areas within the brain
50
What is double dissociation?
Experimental technique by which two areas of neocortex are
functionally dissociated by two behavioral tests, each test being
affected by a lesion in one zone and not the other. In a series of
patients with traumatic brain injury, one might find two patients, A
and B.
This is the demonstration that two experimental manipulations each have different effects on two dependent variables; if one manipulation affects the first variable and not the second, the other manipulation affects the second variable and not the first.
51
Explain Broca's area, and the story behind it
Here, Paul Broca (1824-1880) had a patient called "Tan", whose real name was Mr Leborgne
Tan had lost speech and motr function but language comprehension was intact
Upon further investigation, it led to the discovery of Broca's area which controls speech function
52
Explain Wernicke's area, and the story behind it
Wernicke's patient talked and talked but it didnt make sense. Speech production was intact, but language comprehension was gone
Thus, led to Wernicke's area --> language comprehension
53
Who else worked on the functional localisation issue?
Jean Pierre Flourens worked on this issue.
He tested Gall's ideas of localisation by lesions in living animals (rabbits, pigeons), and discovered:
When he removed cerebal hemispheres --> perception and judgement gone
Removal of cerebellum --> problems with motor coordination
Removal of brain stem --> death
54
What is phrenology?
It is the study of the shape and size of certain parts of the cranium as an indication of character and mental abilities
(belief that the shape and size of the skull reveal insights into personality traits, intelligence etc.)
I.e. if you find the 'math bump' or 'language bump' it shows that you have a flair in that certain subject
55
Who were the founding fathers of Phrenology
Franz Josef Gall. Gall assumed that the surface of the skull faithfully reflects the relative development of the various regions of the brain
Additionally, his student Sparzheim also spread the message of phrenology
56
How was phrenology influenced by the zeitgeist of the time?
Rise of materialism: Phrenology fit with this by proposing a tangible connection between structure of brain and mental attributes
Popularity of self help treatments: phrenology focuses on self and personal development --> Fueled with popularity of self help. People were eager to find ways to enhance their lives, and phrenology offered a scientific, systematic approach to understanding oneself
57
Explain the case of Phineas Gage
In 1948, Phineas had a workplace accident, where an iron tamping rod entered and exited his skull
He survived but it is said that his personality changed as a result --> not organised, foul mouthed
This led to a greater understanding of brain regions involved in personality, namely the frontal lobe. It seems to show that even personality is localised in the brain
58
What is lobotomy?
It is a surgical procedure where the nerve pathways in a lobe or lobes of the brain are severed from those in other areas.
Lobotomies became popular in the 1930s as a treatment for certain mental health conditions. Doctors performed this procedure on people with conditions such as schizophrenia and depression.
59
Explain the idea of plasticity
When an individual has only one hemisphere of the brain (hemispherectomy) or a significant portion of one hemisphere is removed due to medical reasons such as severe epilepsy or brain tumors, the remaining hemisphere can undergo remarkable plastic changes to compensate for the lost functions. This phenomenon is known as hemispheric plasticity and highlights the brain's remarkable ability to reorganize itself in response to injury or structural changes.
Here's how plasticity in the remaining hemisphere can manifest:
Functional Reorganization: The remaining hemisphere may undergo functional reorganization to take over the tasks and functions previously performed by the missing hemisphere. For example, language functions typically lateralized to the left hemisphere (in most right-handed individuals) can partially or fully shift to the right hemisphere following a left hemispherectomy. This reorganization can involve recruitment of adjacent brain regions or existing neural pathways to compensate for the lost functions.
Compensatory Mechanisms: The brain may employ compensatory mechanisms to offset deficits resulting from the loss of half a hemisphere. This could involve enhancing the efficiency of existing neural circuits, increasing connectivity between distant brain regions, or adopting alternative strategies to perform cognitive and motor tasks.
Plastic Changes in Connectivity: Following hemispherectomy, the remaining hemisphere may undergo changes in structural and functional connectivity to adapt to the altered brain architecture. These changes can include the growth of new synaptic connections, rewiring of existing neural pathways, and alterations in neurotransmitter systems to support adaptive functioning.
Behavioral Adaptations: Individuals who have undergone hemispherectomy often demonstrate remarkable behavioral adaptations, including improvements in motor function, language abilities, and cognitive skills. These adaptations reflect the brain's capacity to compensate for structural deficits through plastic changes in neural circuitry and functional organization.
60
What is the fMRI?
It is the functional magnetic resonance imaging, and it measures brain activity by detecting changes associated with blood flow in the brain.
61
How can fMRI be considered modern phrenology?
So many fancy fMRI scans showing which parts of the brain are active while 'listening to music' or 'speaking a second language' - it gives us important clues about how the brain divides tasks, but it doesn't tell us much about how the brain works.
62
Can the brain be established as a network of highly specialised areas?
Yes, especially seen in the past such as Gage, Broca's area and Wernicke's area
63
What do lay people think psychology is?
People who reads other minds
All about the thereauputic side
64
What is psychology?
It is the study of the mind and its mental processes
65
What are some examples of psychology?
Biological psychology
Sport psychology
Forensic psychology
Personality
Social psychology
Mathematical psychology
and many more
66
What are the 3 main categories of psychology and their levels
Social --> cultural, interpersonal
Individual --> Individual differences, perception & cognition, behaviour
Biological --> brain systems, neurochemical, genetic
67
What is studied in the cultural level?
Norms, beliefs, values, symbols ethnicity
68
What is studied in the interpersonal level
Groups, relationships, persuasion, influence, workplace
69
What is studied in the individual differences level
Personality, gender, developmental age groups, self concepts
70
What is studied in the perception & cognition level
Thinking, decision making, language, memory, seeing, hearing
71
What is studied in the behaviour level
Observable actions, responses, physical movements
72
What is studied in the brain systems level
Neuroanatomy, animal research, brain imamging
73
What is studied in the neurochemical level
Neurotransmitters and hormones, animal studies & drug studies
74
What is studied in the genetic level
Gene mechanisms, heritability, twin and adoption studies
75
What is demarcation?
It refers to the boundary between scientific and unscientific. How do you establish this line?
76
What is the proposed definition for 'good science'
Typically follows the scientific method
77
What is the proposed definition for 'bad science'
This is a flawed version of good science, with potential for improvement. It either doesn't follow the scientific method or follows it with errors or biases
78
Who is Clever Hans?
Clever Hans was a horse trained by Mr Von Osten to be able to solve simple maths problems
79
What were the experiments to discover the reasons behind Clever Hans' behaviour?
Pfungst tried to come up with several experiments to uncover the reason behind this behaviour:
Experiment 1: aimed to address the question of whether Mr Osten was a charlatan. To do so, he removed Mr Osten out of the picture, however this failed and the horse continued to be able to answer the problems correctly
Experiment 2: Take all cues away from the horse, especially visual cues through the use of blinkers. This was successful in causing Clever Hans to fail
It was thus concluded that Clever Hans was reliant on visual cues such as tension in human behaviour to determine what the right answer was, and when to 'stop stomping'
80
What was the significance of Clever Hans?
Clever Hans effects can occur in experiments with humans, as well as animals. In this scenario, humans might be able to predict what a good answer would be to a question. For this reason, care is taken to make experiments double blind.
However, it mainly also just shows that people will reject 'good science' using the research method, in favour of satisfying their interest in weird phenomena
81
What is subliminal presentation/perception?
This is where a stimulus is registered and processed without the subject's awareness. Subliminal messages can affect mood and bias memory retrieval, but can't trigger complex human behaviours
82
What are some famous past examples of subliminal presentation?
In advertising, such as the 'ice cube sex' phenomena
James Vicary had 'Drink Coke' and 'Eat Popcorn' messages flashed between frames in a movie, too briefly to reach consciousness --> recorded increased coke and popcorn sales. However Vicary admitted this was a fraud
83
Why is Karl Popper well known (what theory?
Came up with the theory of falsification, which suggests that a scientific theory is only considered scientific if it can be tested and potentially falsified through experimentation & observation.
In short, it suggests that theories must be able to be proven false to be valid
Meanwhile, non scientific theories can't be falsified
84
What was the example of black swans related with Popper's theory?
Relates to the theory of falsifiability
For example, lets say that we have a hypothesis stating 'all swans are white' it is a good one because it can be tested (falsified). For example, if you find one black swan you can actually be sure for 100% that not all swans are white --> reject the theory etc.
85
Using Popper's theory of falsifiability can Freuds theory be considered scientific?
No, it can't because it can't be tested
86
What did Thomas Kuhn say in contrast to Popper
He opposed Popper's ideas that three is a clear demarcation of science/non-science, through assessing extent of falsifiability
According to Kuhn, scientists don't necessarily discard a theory when faced with contradictory evidence (falsified), instead they may attempt to accommodate or explain away anomalies within the existing paradigm until a crisis point is reached. When anomalies accumulate, existing paradigm can no longer account for them satisfactorily --> scientific revolution --> new paradigm
Emphasises the role of paradigms, and revolutions in shaping scientific development
87
Why is Skinner an example of Kuhn's theory
Skinner is a famous behaviourist who came up with the ;aw pf effect (states that behaviours that are followed by favourable consequences are likely to be repeated, while behaviours which have unfavourable consequences, are less likely to be repeated).
This work challenged the dominant paradigm in psychology at that time, which was influenced by introspection and Freudian Psychology
However, over time, his work gained recognition and contributed to significant changes in the field --> emergence of behaviourism as a major force in psychology
Thus, relating to Kuhn's theory of how new ideologies can disrupt established paradigms
88
What did John Locke famously say? (IMPORTANT
"Nothing is in the mind which was not first in the senses" --> implies that one is born without innate ideas. All knowledge is delivered by our senses, so experience derives from perception
89
What is the Molyneux question
Molyneux asked John Locke;
"If a man who has been born blind and has learnt to distinguish a globe and a cube by touch, be able to immediately distinguish and name these shapes if given the ability to see?
90
What is nativism?
It is the belief that certain abilities or knowledge are innate to the human mind rather than solely being acquired through experience or learning
They believe that humans are born with inherent cognitive structures --> suggests that the mind isn't a blank slate but already has certain biases
(i.e. 'nature' in the nature vs nature debate)
91
What is empiricism?
It is a belief that experience and sensory perception are the most important in the acquisition of knowledge. All knowledge comes from sensory experience and rejects notion of innate knowledge
(i.e. 'nurture' in the nature vs nature debate)
92
What is rationalism?
It is a belief that reason and logic is essential to the acquisition of knowledge. Suggests that certain truths can be known independently of experience through reason alone (relies on deductive reasoning)
93
What is tabula rasa
Tabula rasa(latin) = blank slate
It originates from the notion that the human mind is born as a blank slate, devoid of innate knowledge or ideas
According to this idea , individuals aren't born with pre existing knowledge, concepts or beleifs, rather their minds are like empty tablets to be filled with experiences, perceptions, and learning acquired through interactions with the environment
94
What is mental (re)presentation?
How the mind can interpret various abstract concepts to form a complete mental representation (?)
Mental representation allows individual to manipulate information (numerically, but also shape wise) and make sense of surroundings (?)
95
What is the difference between the mind and the body?
The mind is about mental processes, thoughts and consciousness
The body is about the physical aspects of the brain neurons and how the brain is structured
96
What is the mind/body problem?
It concerns the relationship between thought and consciousness in the human mind and the body.
Poses the question; is the mind a part of the body, or the body part of the mind? If they are distinct, then how do they interact? Which of the two is in charge
Two sides to the argument; dualism and monism
97
What does dualism suggest?
Proposes that the mind controls the body, but that the body can also influenec the otherwise rational mind, such as when people act out of passion
Both body and mind exist
Supported by Descartes, 'cogito ergo sum' - i think therefore I am
98
What does monism suggest?
It proposes that there is only a 'mind' or 'body'. There are two parts:
Materialism and mentalism
99
What does materialism suggest?
There is only the body, all reality is of a physical nature. Only the body exists. The 'mind' can be reduced to biology and biochemical activity (aka reductionism)
100
What does mentalism/idealism/immaterialism suggest?
Reality exists only in the mind. Without the mind, reality might not exist (so physical world would be irrelevant)
101
What is a quote by a materialist
Ludwig Feuerbach said 'You are what you eat'
Thus, the very act of sustenance affects humans not just as individual beings but also as part of a collective. The food intake, Feuerbach argues, has a direct influence on the way in which human beings behave and feel.21 Nov 2014
102
What is a quote by an immaterialist (subjective idealism)
Bishop George Berkeley;
'To be is to be perceived'
'Objects cannot exist without being perceived'
103
What it the 'reality only exists in the mind' experiment?
If a tree falls in a forest, and noone is around to hear it, does it make a sound? How do we test this? Can we?
104
What is interactionism?
It is in the realm of dualism which asserts that the mind and body have to interact with one another if both exist. Here, mental events (such as theories, feelings) can casually influence physical events
105
Name the key European philosophers
Descartes and Kant
106
What was the main idea of Descartes?
Supported dualism and stated 'cogito ergo sum' --> I think therefore I am. He believed that nothing is sure but your own existence (we can't trust our own senses)
Descartes proposed that the mind and body interacted in the pineal gland, because the soul is unitary and unlike many structures in the brain, the pineal gland was like that (he was wrong about this)
107
What was the main idea of Kant?
Said that 'the human mind knows objects' --> it is innate
Proposed that there are certain truths that are both necessary for our understanding and not dependent on experience. Argues that there are certain fundamental concepts which are inherent to human cognition and sturcutre and understanding of the world. Emphasises the role of the mind in shaping our experiences of reality
He is a nativist
108
Who are the key empiricists?
Hume and Berkeley
109
What did Hume argue?
Argues that all human knowledge comes from sensory experiences. "All our ideas are nothing but copies of our impressions" meaning that our ideas are derived from our impressions, either directly or indirectly. This supported the idea of tabula rasa at birth
110
What did Berkeley argue?
Said that "to be is to be perceived" and that "objects cannot exist without being perceived" --> i.e. reality only exists in the mind (tree falling experiment)
This quote also means that the existence of objects is dependent on being perceived by the mind --> reality only consisting of minds and their perception
Here, all knowledge is gained from our perception
111
Was Noam Chomsky a nativist or empiricist?
He is a nativist
112
What was Chomsky's main ideas? Why is he important?
He suggests that 'language is an innate faculty of the human mind' and that there was a 'critical/sensitive period' for language acquisition (CPH - Critical period hypothesis)
He argues that humans are born with a specialised language faculty --> enabling them to acquire language.
Revolutionised linguistics and suggests people are born with the ability to learn languages. He has written several books on linguists and politics
113
What is the Critical period hypothesis
The critical period hypothesis or sensitive period hypothesis claims that there is an ideal time window of brain development to acquire language in a linguistically rich environment, after which further language acquisition becomes much more difficult and effortful.
This period is the time where ability to learn a language is most optimal
Period in childhood which is sensitive to input and learning. After CPH, language learning becomes more difficult
114
What is language universals?
Suggests that there are patterns or principles that are found across all human languages. Suggests the common features or structures shared by languages all over the world despite diversity
115
What are some examples of language universals?
Structural universals: structure of language
Semantic universals : meanings of languages
116
Who initially investigated the mechanisms of imprinting?
Lorenz in 1935
117
What is imprinting?
It is where some species of animals form an attachment to the first large moving object that they meet
118
Why is imprinting important?
As it suggests that attachment is innate, and programmed genetically --> supports nativism
119
How did Lorenz investigate imprinting?
Lorenz took a large amount of goose eggs until they were going to hatch. Half was placed with the mother, while he kept the other half in an incubator, and made sure he was the first moving object the newly hatched geese encountered --> allows for imprinting
120
Who is Genie Wiley and what is her significance in discovering more about language acquisition?
In 1970 a young girl (Genie) was rescued from an imprisoned life in a room no bigger than 10 by 14 feet. At 13 years old, the child had spent the past eleven years harnessed to an infants potty seat
When they discovered her, her language development had been severely impacted, with her being unable to speak more than her name, and 'sorry', she also had struggle understanding language
They tried to teach her language, but she struggled to do catch on well
This supports the idea of critical age hypothesis for language learning. Also highlights importance of social interaction and environmental input for language development
121
What is structuralism?
Thought up of by Wundt and Titchener and suggested that we had to llook at our own conscious experience in search for the basic elements that build up this experience. Very subjective and relies on self reports
122
WHat is functionalism?
Thought up of by William James, and he argues that the problem with structuralism is that there is a 'stream of consciousness', and you can't just freeze your current thoughts to analyse them into little building blocks. Proposes that the important question is, 'what is the function?'
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Who are the key players in Gestalt Psychology?
Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, Wolfgang Kohler are the founders of Gestalt Psychology
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What did Koffka famously say?
'The whole is other than the sum of its parts'
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What is the principle of Gestalt Psychology?
Gestalt can be translated slightly into 'whole', 'complete' or 'pattern'
It argues that perception is not simply the result of combining individuals sensory stimuli but rather emerges from the organisation of these stimuli into meaningful patterns or configurations
Perceiving is not just sensations but a creative process of organising in/by the brain
Encapsulates perceptual organisation
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What is perceptual organisation?
It suggests that a stimulus organises itself; all the info is there but just needs to get rearranged (i.e. visual illusions)
Refers to the ways that the human brain organises sensory information into meaningful perceptual experiences
When we interact with the environment, our sensory systems receive constant stream of stimuli, and perceptual organisation is the organisation + interpretation of these sensory inputs into coherent and meaningful perceptions of the world
Famous examples are the KANIZSA triangle and common fate.
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What are the Gestalt Laws?
Similarity (main)
Proximity(main)
Closure(main)
Continuity
Common Fate
Figure-Ground
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What is the gestalt law of similarity?
Things/objects which share visual characteristics will be seen as belonging together. Similarity based on shape, size, colour etc.
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What is the gestalt law of proximity?
Objects close to each other tend to be perceived as a group, even if they are different in shape or colour
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What is the gestalt law of closure?
Our tendency to perceive incomplete/fragmented stimuli as complete or whole, even when parts of an object are messy or obscured (i.e the kanizsa triangle)
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What is the gestalt law of continuity?
Elements that form smooth, continuous lines or curves are perceived as belonging together when lines interesect we perceive hem as continuing along the smoothest path, rather than change direction abruptly
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What is the gestalt law of common fate?
Elements that move together in the same direction or at the same speed are perceived as belonging together
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What is the gestalt law of figure-ground?
Tendency to perceive objects as being either in the main focus(figure) or the background(ground) in a scene.
Figure: The figure is the object or shape that stands out and captures our attention. It is perceived as being in the foreground of the visual field. The figure is typically seen as having distinct characteristics such as a clear outline, distinct colors or textures, or being located in the center of attention.
Ground: The ground is the background against which the figure is perceived. It typically lacks the distinct characteristics of the figure and serves as a backdrop or context for the figure. The ground often appears to recede into the background and may have less emphasis in our perception compared to the figure.
Overall, the Gestalt law of figure-ground highlights the importance of visual perception in organizing and making sense of the world around us. It demonstrates how we naturally distinguish between objects of interest (figures) and their surrounding context (ground), contributing to our ability to perceive and interpret visual information efficiently.
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What is behaviourism?
Focusses on how people learn certain behaviours through interactions with the environment. Based on the idea that behaviours are acquired through conditioning (reinforcement & punishment)
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What is classical conditoning?
It is a type of learning that occurs through association of two different stimuli
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Who discovered/first described classical conditioning?
Ivan Pavlov, in his experiments with dogs. He ran an experiment on dogs by giving it food, everytime a bell rings. However, he found that everytime he rings the bell, even if there is no food the dog begins to drool (due to conditioning of the bell)
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Explain the process of conditioning with an example
Before conditioning:
Neutral stimulus (bell)--> no consistent response
Unconditioned stimulus (food) --> unconditioned reflex--> unconditioned response (salivation)
During conditioning:
Neutral stimulus(bell) + unconditioned stimulus (food) --> unconditioned response (salivation)
After conditioning
Conditioning stimulus (bell)--> conditioned reflex --> conditioned response (salivation)
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What is an unconditioned stimulus
Stimulus occurring naturally, that automatically triggers a response without learning
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What is an unconditioned response
This is the natural response elicited by the unconditioned stimulus
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What is a conditioned stimulus
This is a neutral stimulus that, through repeated association, with the unconditioned stimulus --> elicits a response similar to the unconditioned response
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What is a conditioned response
Learned response to the conditioned stimulus (i.e. salivation)
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What is another example of classical conditioning?
Little Albert and conditioning his emotional response to a rabbit. (he was initially unafraid of the rabbit, however, it was associated with a loud sound repeatedly, which he was scared of --> scared of rabbit
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How can conditioning be applied in advertisements?
Consumers could be conditioned to have a certain response when we see a product
I.e. see a sexy person doing an ad for a certain product --> good feeling associated with the product --> more likely to buy the product due to good vibes from it
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What are the ethical concerns of conditioning in advertisements?
Manipulation through psychological vulnerabilities is unethical
Lack of informed consent
Could have potential for harmful effects, especially if they reinforce harmful stereotypes/behaviours (i.e. some products with high beauty standards --> body image issues)
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What is the significance of John B Watson?
Suggested that behaviour of a person is the product of all one has learned in the past.
He famously said 'Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select – doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors. I am going beyond my facts and I admit it, but so have the advocates of the contrary and they have been doing it for many thousands of years.'
However, what he implies here is the idea of empiricism and that people/children can be conditioned / manipulated to learn, thus enabling him to say that he could shape any child into any role / job / function
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What are the ethics of experiments with children
Need informed consent(from who?)
minimise risks towards children
Need to consider potential benefits f the research as well as risks involved
can't subject children to physical and psychological harm
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What are the ethics of experiments with animals
Has to be a balance between potential benefits of research and the harm inflicted on the animals
Reduce suffering and distress experienced by animals during experiments
seek alternatives to animal experimentation where possible
regulatory oversight
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What are the benefits of experimenting with animals
Easy access
Good participants/subjects
Easy to work with
No thoughts interfering with task
Hardly complain
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What is operant conditioning?
Method of learning which employs rewards and punishments for certain behaviours. Thus, behaviours can be controlled this way
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What is the difference between operant and classical conditioning?
Classical conditioning involves associating an involuntary response and a stimulus, while operant conditioning is about associating a voluntary behaviour to a consequence
operant conditioning is learning consequences from your behaviors and classical conditioning is learned from connections between stimuli.
Role of Reinforcement/Punishment:
Classical Conditioning: Does not involve reinforcement or punishment directly. Instead, it relies on the association between stimuli. The conditioned stimulus comes to evoke a response because it is paired with an unconditioned stimulus that naturally evokes that response.
Operant Conditioning: Reinforcement and punishment play a crucial role. Behavior is strengthened or weakened based on the consequences that follow it. Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior recurring, while punishment decreases its likelihood.
Another main difference is that classical is learned from connections between stimuli and operant is learning consequences and rewards from certain behaviours
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What was Thorndike's puzzle box? What were the findings
Where animals were given a reward if they could get out of a special cage that requires 3 steps to escape
When Thorndike put them back in the same cage after several times, the animals didn't have to go through trial and error again, showing that they had learnt how to get out of the cage (the cat took less time to escape over time
Animals learn through trial and error
Additionally, it allowed Thorndike to come up with the Law of Effect
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What is the Law of Effect?
States that behaviours that are followed by favourable consequences are more likely to be repeated, while behaviours that are followed by unfavourable consequences are less likely to be repeated --> laid foundations of operant conditioning which was further developed by skinner
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How did B.F. Skinner build on Thorndike's experiments?
Further developed concept of operant conditioning in the 'Skinner Box' which allowed for more precise control over the experimental conditions and a more systematic way to study behaviour.
Skinner box had a lever/button a animal had to press to obtain a reward --> reinforcing behaviour. Other features introduced to manipulate different aspects of behaviour such as schedules of reinforcement
I.e. Pigeons are placed in chambers where they receive a food pellet for pecking at a response key
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What was Skinners findings
B. F. Skinner's theory of learning says that a person is first exposed to a stimulus, which elicits a response, and the response is then reinforced (stimulus, response, reinforcement).
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How did Seligman come up with the concept of learned helplessness?
He made an experiment where dogs were placed in a two sided box. Dogs that had no prior experience with being unable to escape a shock would quickly jump over the hurdle to land on the 'safe' side. However, after a while dogs learned that escape was impossible --> they would stay on one side of the box in which the shock occurs, not even trying to escape --> learned helplessness
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What are the implications of learned helplessness on society?
SHows that learned helplessness can impair a persons ability to handle stressful situations
Suggests that terrorism is a result of the process of learned helplessness(idea that your actions have no effect can go two ways:
learned helplessness
Fight those that aren't willing to hear you out --> terrorism)
Also shows the learned helplessness of many who have been in abusive households/relationships
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What were the 3 problems facing behaviourists
Barnabas the rat
Tolman's rats
John Garcia and single exposure learning
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What was Barnabas the rat and what problem did it pose to behaviourists?
His experiment consisted of various individual steps called 'shaping' to bring it all together in a complex event through 'chaining'.
This study demonstrated that animals like Barnabas could learn complex sequences of behaviours and exhibit problem solving abilities which can't be fully explained by simple reinforcement principles which is the foundation of behaviourism --> suggests involvement of cognitive processes, such as memory, problem solving and others, which behaviourism traditionally downplays (reinforcement as the most important thing)
Raised questions about limitations of behaviourism in fully explaining complex behaviours especially involving cognitive processes
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What were Tolman's rats and what problem did it pose to behaviourists?
Here, Tolman allowed his rats to move around in a maze without being reinforced. They did this for several hours. Turned out that these rats were faster at finding food compared to those who had not been in the maze beforehand
This caused a problem, as it was against the idea that reinforcements were thought to be cruicial to learning
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What problem did John Garcia raise against behaviourists?
He had a famous work involving the study of taste aversion in rats. Here he found that rats developed a strong aversion to flavours associated with nausea, even after a single exposure. This contradicts predictions of classical and operant conditioning which needs reinforcements to learn a certain behaviour.
Garcia also further antagonised behaviourists by arguing that it is evolution which has shaped the above characteristics
This overall shows that animals can learn even after only a single exposure --> counteracts classical ideas on behaviour
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Explain Kuhn's theory in Garcia's case
Garcia's work was hard to publish, especially according to Kuhn, who argues that initially, newer research is hard to publish because it goes against the paradigm (behaviourism), however as these anomalies were discovered it leads to revolutions in science --> new paradigms
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What is the cognitive revolution?
Shifted the paradigm away from behaviourism to a focus on mental processes, cognition and internal mental representations. This whole revolution aimed to reject behaviourism.
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What were the 3 main influences on the cognitive revolution?
Research on human performance, under pressure of WW2
Developments in computer science, particularly AI (Alan Newell & Herbert Simon)
Developments in linguistics (Noam Chomsky)
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What is cognitive neuroscience?
Its name was given by Michael Gazzaniga. It is a subfield of neuroscience that studies the biological processes that underlie human cognition, especially in regards to the relation between brain structures, activity & cognitive functions
Purpose is to determine how the brain functions and achieves performance
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What are split brain experiments? WHat were their findings and effects?
These involve patients who had undergone a surgical procedure which severs the corpus callosum, which is the bundle of nerve fibres connecting the two hemispheres of the brain --> communication between hemispheres is disrupted.
This provided evidence for the localisation of brain functions (different hemispheres specialise for different cognitive functions). Idea of hemispheric specialisation:
left hemisphere = language processing
right hemisphere = spatial perception + recognition
Shed light into nature of consciousness through raising questions about unity of consciousness and how it emerges from the activity of distributed neural networks
It also had behavioural effects. For example, when presented with stimuli to one visual field which is processed by the opposite hemisphere, patients suggest unawareness of stimuli. However, if asked to perform tasks with the coressponding hand (controlled by hemisphere processing stimuli), they can respond appropriately --> info can be processed unconsciously in the disconnected hemisphere
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How were the findings in neural activity used to develop a more neuroscienific approach to psychology?
Use of hemispheres and localisation of brain --> neuroscientific approach to psychology
Functions became more clear
Biological basis of behaviour established
mapping of brain functions
Locaisation of functions
Pathways within the brain
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What are some of the latest ways to measure brain activity?
EEG/ERP, MRI and fMRI, MEG, PET/CT
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What are some possible uses of trepanation (drilling a hole in the head)?
Some believe it was to get rid of evil spirits which caused mental disorders or pain (mental conditions or migraines etc.)
It was also used to relieve internal pressure and headaches
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What are Mental asylums/psychiatric hospitals?
These specialise in treating severe mental disorders. However, often, in the past there was abuse rampant, coupled with large amounts of untrained staff
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What is the most infamous case of asylums?
Saint Mary of Bethlehem in London, which started in 1547, and it was nicknamed 'BEDLAM'
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Why did Saint Mary of Bethelhem have such a bad reputation?
Because the patients were largely seen as 'freaks', and the hospital was available to the public, where some of the members of the public were able to pay to look at some of the 'freaks --> added to the notority. It was essentially run like a zoo
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What was the general perspective of society at the time on mental illness
There is often a lot of superstition, shame and potential stigmas in society against mentally ill people
Additionally, the experience of BEDLAM shows that the view of mental illness and those who have the problem are seen as 'degenerate' or 'lower beings' --> negative perspective on mental illness --> reveals a lot of stigma
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Was what was happening in BEDLAM only happening in London?
No, it was also happening across the rest of the world, especially in the USA
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How did Dorothy/Dorothea Dix attempt to fix the situation of mistreatment of mentally ill people?
Prior to 1841, there had been several attempts for a more human approach, however this humanitarian movement largely failed
In 1841, Miss Dix visited a Boston jail and found mentally ill people confined under inhumane conditions --> long lasting campaign to reform asylums --> Mental Hygiene Movement, which was successful ni reformation
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What is the impact of movies like 'one flew over the cuckoo's nest'
Depicted harsh realities of mental health conditions in 1960s, raising awareness about treatment of patients
Reduces stigma through humanising characters
Raises ethical questions about use of psychiatric interventions, such as electroconvulsive therapy and lobotomy.
Inspired humerous depictions of mental illness
Highlights how haard it is to determine psychiatry vs psychology
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Who are the key pplayers in the history of mental health?
Mesmer, Witmer and Freud
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What was the importance of Witmer in the history of mental health
He (seems to have) introduced the term clinical psychology.
He had worked on some people with learning disabilities, and taught a young person who had problems with spelling. This made him establish one of the first psychological clinics/labs. He himself was trained by Wundt in 1891 for 2 year
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What was the importance of Freud in the history of mental health
Came up with the psycho-analytic theory of personality and psychopathology. His main argument in mental health was that there was the existence of the 'id' = contains all urges/ impulses, 'ego' = rational part which mediates desires of id and moral constraints of supergo, 'superego' = moral compass of the psyche
He argued that the unconcious conflicts between all these is what causes mental health issues
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Explain Freud's use of hypnotherapy to treat hysteria
Freud's interest in hypnosis stemmed from his collaboration with Josef Breuer, where they developed hypnotherapy to treat people with hysteria
It involves recalling traumatic events, under the belief that recalling traumatic events and reliving the emotions would help relieve them from their hysteric symptoms
Freud thought hypnosis would still block repressed painful memories.
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Who are some key examples of neo-Freudians
Anna Freud
Karen Horney
Carl Jung
Erich Fromm
Alfred Adler
Erik Erikson
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Explain therapy from a behavioural perspective. Give an example
Behavioural perspective on therapy suggests that change/therapy can work through conditioning. Here, therapy is based on behaviourism
For example, we might have systematic desensitisation as a form of therapy. If you are afraid of spiders, the idea is that you get conditioned to their presence, so that you are comfortable being next to them
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Describe the significance of Carl Rogers
He wrote a well known book 'Client centred therapy'
He had the 'humanistic approach' which proposes the idea of 'unconditional possible regard,' which involves; empathy, accepting clients' feelings and this will make for open and honest communication which is necessary for growth --> which is what a therapist should see as the desired result
Overall, he emphasises the individual's personal health
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What is the DSM - 5 and what are the problems with it?
DSM contains symptoms and other criteria for diagnosing mental disorders
Some problems include:
DSM oversimplifies complexity of psychological problems
Could still be inaccurate
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Discuss the idea of 'equilibrium' and 'imbalance therapy'
Hippocrates thought that mental illness has its causes in natural occurrences in the body. He thought it was a result of the four essential fluids in our body; Blood, phlegm, (yellow) bile and black bile, which all had to exist in 'equilibrium' with one another
He thought that personality was based on the balance of these 'humors' And that an 'imbalance' meant problems.
In an attempt to fix this imbalance, there is imbalance therapy through 'blood letting' which involves removing blood away from the body, and is used to set a new balance
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Understand that some mental problems are more prevalent in different times
yes
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Have a basic understanding of the history of mental health and clinical psychology (kinda not really, its more the slides above)
From trepanning, demons and supernatural forces to evidence-based
treatment/therapy
After Neolithic period, still lots of trepanning
Hebrews, Persians: inflicted by God as punishment (but then again, he could also heal the problem…)
Egyptians had already more insight and even therapy (music, dancing, painting…).
Strange’ ideas: thought that Conversion Disorder (Hysteria) was caused by a ’wandering
uterus’…
Hippocrates’ thinking was crucial --> idea of 'equilibrium' through the 4 humors
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Explain humanistic psycholpogy
Humanistic psychology is a psychological perspective that emphasizes thestudy of the whole person. Humanistic psychologists look at human behavior notonly through the eyes of the observer, but through the eyes of the person doing the behaving.
Importance of individual and unique personality trait
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Explain the neuroscientific revolution
Direct imaging of brain activity
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Explain skinner and behaviourism / behaviourism period
Behaviorism is a theory of learning based on the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning, and conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment.
The zeitgeist of the time was the idea of objective learning principles with observable constructs only
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Explain Freud and Psychoanalysis
Focussed on the unobservable, complex constructs like the conconscious
Thought about use of hypnotism
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Explain the cognitive evolution
The cognitive revolution was an intellectual shift in psychology in the 1950s focusing on the internal mental processes driving human behavior.
Focus on learning, perception, memory and thinking
