History - Medicine Flashcards
(191 cards)
1
Q
Why did Galen have such a big impact on medicine in the medieval world
A
Galen became influential because his ideas were very much compatible with the Church’s belief. Also the importance of books and the lack of alternative theories.
2
Q
What did people believe caused a disease in the Middle Ages
A
they believed disease was a curse from God. They also believed that your sickness was caused by your four humours (liquids in your body) being out of balance.
3
Q
What elements of the Medieval world were stagnant
A
- Public health facilities and law
- ideas about the cause of disease
- Ideas about the treatment of disease
- Ideas about staying healthy
- Training of doctors
- Hospitals
4
Q
What was the medieval mindset
A
Religion was highly valued - dominance
There was emphasis of death - mind set was not conducive to discovery. Rationale to existence was to either end up in heaven or end up in hell. The church filtered knowledge - had so much power.
5
Q
How did the importance of book learning help Galen’s influence
A
Many people could not read in the Middle Ages meaning that being widely read was a sign of a good physician. Having read the works of Hippocrates and Galen was proof that a physician was worth the money that he was being paid. The authority of these classical texts were so strong that people believed them even when there was physical evidence that suggested they.
6
Q
How did the lack of alternative theories help Galen’s influence
A
Dissections were mostly illegal because the church taught that the body needed to buried whole in order for the soul to go to heaven. Very occasionally physicians were able to dissect executed criminals, or criminals who had been sentenced to death by vivisection. When this happened the physician would sit far away from the body, reading from the works of Galen, while the actual cutting and dissection was done by the barber surgeon.
7
Q
How did Medieval people treat disease using religious methods
A
- spiritual healing - including healing prayers and incarnations.
- pilgrimages to the tombs of people noted for their healing powers became popular
- touching holy relics
8
Q
How did Medieval people treat disease as a result of the theory of the four humours
A
- medieval people did not recognise that treating the cause of the illness will eventually treat the symptoms
- blood letting was the most common treatment for the imbalance of humours. It was thought that removing some blood would remove bad humours
- Purging was used as it was believed that the humours were created from the food eaten so they must be removed from the digestive system
9
Q
How did Medieval people treat disease using herbal remedies
A
- treated with herbal infusions to drink, sniff or bathe in - aloe vera was prescribed to improve digestion
- a common remedy mixed a sold was “theriaca” which was a spiced based mixture that contained over 70 different spices
10
Q
How did Medieval people treat disease through the supernatural
A
- supernatural remedies were available but were not approved by the church
- chanting incarnations and using charms to heal symptoms were fairly common
- Sometimes the sick were discouraged from using cures as if God sent the disease to purge the soul it was important for the disease to run its course
11
Q
How did the theory of the four humours explain the cause of disease and who created this idea
A
- stated that as the universe was made up of 4 basic elements (fire, water, earth and air) the body must be made up of 4 humours - phlegm, blood, black bile and choler.
These humours must be balanced and equal otherwise you become ill - Theory came form, Hippocrates
12
Q
How did the miasma theory explain the causes of disease
A
- A miasma was bad air believed to be filled with toxic fumes
- Hippocrates and Galen both wrote about Miasmata and suggested that corpses and other rotting material could transmit disease
- A sweet and clean smelling home was seen as a sign of spiritual cleanliness
- If a person was unwashed others would avoid them
13
Q
How did astrology explain the cause of disease
A
- The alignment of the planets and starts was considered very important
- After the black death arrived astrology seemed more popular as many people believed the black death was due to a bad alignment of planets
14
Q
How did the Medieval people prevent disease through religious methods
A
- most people led a life free of sin- regular prayers and confessions helped to ensure that any minor sins were quickly forgiven
15
Q
How did the Medieval people prevent disease through the Regimen Sanitatis
A
The Regimen Sanitatis was a list of loose instructions provided by the physicians to help a patient maintain good health.
Appeared first on the work of Hippocrates where it was later picked up by Galen
This service was only available to the very rich because it took a long time to write
Bathing was also a preventative measure as it removed bad smells however only the wealthy could afford a bath of hot water.
People also tried to maintain a clean home
16
Q
How did the Medieval people prevent disease through diet
A
Since the humours were thought to be produced by digestion eating too much was strongly discouraged. The fear of digestive problems leading to death were so great that people purged themselves either by purging or using laxatives
17
Q
Why were apothecaries very important
A
Apothecaries are extremely important as they are cheaper than physicians and knowledge of herbal remedies
18
Q
What was a physicians role as a medieval medicand how did was medicine proffesionalised
A
During the Middle Ages, new universities were set up across Europe such as Oxford and Cambridge which enabled medicine to become more professional.
The main role of a physician was to diagnose illness and recommend a course of treatment.
19
Q
When did the word ‘doctor’ become common
A
the word ‘doctor’ did not become common until the 17th century
20
Q
Why did physicians rarely get involved in treating patients
A
treating the patients was left up to the less educated midwives, apothecaries or barber surgeons.
Most physicians were were clergymen, who were forbidden from carrying out procedures such as bleeding.
21
Q
How would a consulation with a physician go
A
- The physician would look at a sample of the patient’s urine, faeces and blood, all of which would be collected and sent to him.
- He would also consult the astrological chart under which the patient was born and the time they fell sick
- Based on this and the humeral tendencies of the patient, the physician would create a course of treatment.
22
Q
When was the law passed for forbidding clergymen to carry out any operations likely to involve cutting the patient
A
1215
23
Q
Why were physicians very expensive
A
training to become a physician took a very long time so there weren’t many of them.
24
Q
What was the role of apothecaries
A
Apothecaries mainly mixed herbal remedies.
25
How did apothecaries have a good understanding of the healing powers of herbs and plants
they studied herbal manuals such as Materia Medica and their own experiences or passed down from family members
26
Why did physicians see apothecaries as a threat to their livelihood
Apothecaries did not just create remedies they also prescribed poison which went against an idea fundamental to physicians - that they should do no harm. This goes back to the Hippocratic Oath
27
What was the role of barber surgeons
they were the least qualified medical professionals in England . Since good barbers sharp knives and a steady hand, they regularly performed small surgeries as well as pulling teeth and bleeding patients.
28
What were the standard of hospitals in the medieval period
The number of hospitals in England was on the rise. However many hospitals did not actually treat the sick and instead offered hospitality. Hospitals were a place for patients to rest and recover. The space was kept very clean which was a large part of the nuns duty.
29
By 1500 how many hospitals were there in England
There was an estimated 1,100 hospitals, ranging in size from just a few beds to hundreds.
30
How many hospitals did Bury St Edmunds have and who did they cater for in the middle ages
bury St Edmunds had at least 6 hospitals to cater for lepers, the infirm and the old
31
How much control did the church have over hospitals in the middle ages
About 30% of the hospitals in England were owned and run by the Church
32
Whose responsibility was it took take care of the sick in the medieval period
Christians and hospitals were run by monks
33
How many inmates did the hospitals have in the middle ages
12 inmates in memory of Jesus's 12 disciplines
34
What type of diseases were not often admitted into medieval hospitals
infectious diseases or incurable conditions
35
What type of care did patients receive in medieval hospitals
care for the soul, combined with rest, warmth and food
36
What was the role of a warden in medieval hospitals
they would decide whether the prospective patient would get in or not
37
When did the black death arrive in England
1348
38
How many people did the Black Death kill
estimated to have killed at least 33% of the population
39
How long dod it take for England to recover from the black death
300 years
40
Why did people think astrology caused the black death
there was an unusual alignment between mars, Jupiter and Saturn during 1345. Astrologers said this was evidence something awful was going to happen
41
Why did people think religion caused the black death
Many people believed that it was a punishment from God
42
What did people think caused the black death in terms of the Miasma theory
Miasma theory was by far the most important theory in the medieval period. In particular people believed that the miasma was created by stinking rubbish in the cities.
43
How did the medieval people treat the black death
- light fires to purify air
- many went on pilgrimages to pray for God's forgiveness at the tomb of Saints
- Purging was tried in the early years. eg. drilling holes in the skull to relieve the excess fluids
- Keeping birds to fly around the house
44
How did the higher powers help to treat the black death
The kings and Bishops ordered services and processions in every Church
45
How did the medieval people attempt to prevent the black death religiously
Praying and fasting
Going on pilgrimages
Show God how sorry you are by going on flagellants
46
How did the government take action for the black death
There was very little government responsibility to the Black Death. The Monarchial government believed that they had limited responsibility in relation to health care.
There was some limited action at a local level - people new to a town were ordered to stay away from inhabitants for 40 days but local governments had no power to enforce these laws and often they were ineffective.
47
How does the pace of change differ in the renaissance period from the medieval period
The pace of change picks up but was not transformative as ideas remain an elite phenomenon
48
How did caring for the sick change in the renaissance period
- Hospitals began to increase the focus on curing conditions where before they had exclusively concentrated on providing respite for the sick therefore people didn't stay as long in the middle ages
- Hospitals developed links with physicians
- The Dissolution of the Monasteries under Henry VIII greatly weakened the control of the church over medical care but it also reduced the availability of hospital care
- There was more diversification in hospital types. There was an understanding that disease could be spread from person to person and this meant that hospitals developed for particular conditions
- Some hospitals were taken over by town councils as a result of the dissolution and this represented an increase on the role of local government in medical care
- Due to the printing press doctors had better access to medical text books and there were a wider rage of texts
- New ideas about the human anatomy and iatrochemistry started to be shared and this inspired old ideas to be challenged
- Dissection was legalised but it was very difficult to get hold of a fresh corpse
- Surgeons and apothecaries now had to possess licenses to be able to practice their trade
- Education for medical professions increased 0- new weaponry, new technology on the battlefield meant more surgery was needed
49
What elements of caring for the sick in the medieval period stayed the same in the renaissance period
- Hospitals still had an emphasis on rest and recuperation. They were still a place where people could get access to a much, many still looked after poor people.
- Most sick people continued to be treated at home
- The role of apothecaries and surgeons remained the same
- Physicians were still trained at universities with few changes to training courses Most learning was still done from books rather than experience
- The guild system created in the medieval period continued to train apothecaries - it would take years to become a master apothecary or surgeon
- Surgeon and apothecaries were still the cheaper options for those who could not afford a physician
50
What did Thomas Sydenham contribute to medical knowledge or practice
Nicknamed 'the English Hippocrates' because of how much emphasis he put on diagnosis
He refused to rely on medical textbooks - didn't believe in the value of theoretical knowledge
He argued that it was important to undertake scientific research and to closely observe the symptom of disease
he was one of the first people to differentiate Scarlett fever and measles
he began to classify disease
51
What did William Harvey contribute to medical knowledge or practice
Disproved Galen's theory that blood was made in the liver. He did this through dissection and observation
Showed that veins carried blood only and that the heart was a pump.
Was a physician to King James I
52
Where did Andreas Vesalius study
Padua where he became familiar with the work of Vesailus. In particular his work on dissection
53
What did Andreas Vesalius
contribute to medical knowledge or practice
Vesalius carried out a large number of dissections which allowed him to identify mistakes in Galen's work such as the fact that the human jaw was made up of one part and not two.
He encouraged others to observe, dissect and record their work rather than relying on old texts.
He published works that had detailed drawings of the body.
Was one of the first people to challenge old ideas
54
What book did Vesalius publish and when
In 1543 he published the structure of the human body
55
Why was Sydenham's work important?
Sydenham catogorised diseases .
Because he encouraged the idea of observation, symptoms of dissection were closely observed
He had a big emphasis on diagnosing patients
56
Renaissance - What treatment changed since medieval time
Transference - the idea of illness being transferred to something else when rubbed on the ailment
Chemical Cures - Using metals to help treat diseases eg. Mercury was used to treat syphilis
57
Continuity of the ideas in the renaissance period
Miasma - the idea of miasma continued throughout the renaissance period
Four humours - rejected by scientists but still used by physicians to prescribe treatment
58
What were two of the names of the detailed drawings that Vesalius made
'Six anatomical pictures' and 'the fabric of the human body'
59
Why was Vesalius's work so important
His findings encouraged others to question Galen's work. The work of Vesalius did not have an immediate impact but it took the first step to allow others to understand what was important
60
Who was Thomas Sydenham
English Physician
61
When was Vesalius born
1514
62
When was Harvey born
1578
63
What book did Sydenham write, and when
'medical observations' 1676
64
Why was Harvey's work important
It encouraged other scientists to work on actual bodies. However understanding the idea of circulation of the blood had little practical use in medical treatment so his impact was quite limited.
65
When was the dissolution of the monasteries
1536
66
What elements of prevention in the medieval period remained the same in the renaissance period
Cleanliness was still important - both the home and the body needed to be kept clean and free from bad smells
Going on pilgrimages
67
What elements of prevention in the medieval period remained the changed in the renaissance period
People were more aware of lifestyle so would avoid draughts, exhaustion, rich and fatty foods, strong alcohol and being too lazy
Bathing had become a lot less fashionable in England after the arrival of syphilis which had spread so quickly among people who visited bathhouses in London
68
What did quarantining during the Black Death show
Shows they realised it spread between people - suggestive there was a shift in the understanding that there is an external component to disease
69
How did the control of the church change change from medieval to renaissance?
There was a decline in the influence of the church as government increases power slightly. However the power of the church remained central to the lives of most ordinary people.
70
How did the decline in the influence of the church affect attitudes in society.
Most now believed that God did not send disease. Galen and Hippocrates work was beginning to be questioned by individuals like Vesalius, Harvey and Sydenham, which meant the four humours theory was discredited by physicians and was much more unpopular, although still used in diagnosis.
71
What helped bring about change in authority for the Catholic Church during the renaissance
The reformation weakened the authority of the Catholic Church. In England it helped bring about the dissolution of the monasteries and this caused some increased involvement of local councils in the development of hospitals.
72
How did technology change the understanding of medicine and disease from the medieval to renaissance period?
The printing press meant that there were fewer inconsistencies in information. Int helped key ideas to be spread more efficiently and allowed scientists to spread their ideas across Europe in a much quicker fashion. Accelerated the pace of change during the renaissance period.
73
Who invented the first printing press and when
In around 1440 Johannes Gutenberg invented the first printing press and by 1500 there were undress of printing presses in Europe
74
Education during renaissance
There was no national education system which meant new idea would only circulate in universities and amongst an educated population
75
How did attitudes in society change during the renaissance period
A spirit of intellectual enquiry developed, underpinned by the idea that God could not be responsible fort everything - opened up intellectual space for human enquiry. This enabled humanist scholars to read and challenge Galen as opposed to merely accepting those aspects of his ideas which the church approved.
76
How did technology enable individual's influence
Physicians were exposed to others work, for example anatomy developed as Harvey was exposed to Versailus' ideas
77
How did local governments improve government action in the renaissance
Local governments took more responsibility for the running if hospitals after the dissolution of the monasteries , they also enforced quarantining during the plague. Local governments also ensured streets were cleaned
78
How did the Royal charter help to improve government action dura g the renaissance period
Charles II introduced a Royal Charter to support Royal Society. This legitimised scientific research and enabled more ideas to be shared - meant that individuals were supported by the institution
79
How did government action stay the same from the medieval to the renaissance period
They still didn't intervene in education
The central government still does very little
80
What enabled the rise of individuals in the renaissance
Physicians could challenge Galen's ideas as the manufacture of books were taken out of the churches hands
81
What was significant about the manufacture of books being taken out of the churches hands
Allowed for more new ideas to develop outside of the church's control. Physicians could now publish work which criticised Galen
81
Who began the process of criticising Galen
Vesalius
81
Who emphasised the the importance of scientific methods
Harvey and Sydnenham
81
Until when did English medical textbooks continue to give Gale's account on ideas about the spread of disease
1651 and Harveys ideas only began to appear in universities from 1673
81
How were ideas about causation of the Black Death and the great plague similar
Belived they were punishments from God
Miasma was commonly believed
People understood that disease could be spread between people.
81
How did ideas about the causation of disease differ in the black death and the great plague
There was a bigger emphasis on dirt and filth in the great plague
People understood that the disease could be spread between people
the 4 humours were far messed beloved in the GP
81
How did treatments of the Black Death and the great plague differ
Many treatments were the same but there were a few different ideas such as the theory of transference.
People tried to transfer the disease to other things mainly birds and chickens. It was also thought that people could sweat out the disease so sufferers were wrapped up in a big blanket and put by a fire
81
How did the government take action to help the great plague
Theatres were closed and large gatherings were banned
Dogs and cats were killed
Streets were cleaned regularly
Every day carts collected the dead
If a family member caught the disease they are their family were isolated for 28 days
81
How did germ theory differ from spontaneous generation
It argued that microbes in the air caused decay not the other way round
82
Who discovered germ theory
Louis Pasteur
82
When did Pasteur publish his ideas on germ theory
In 1878 he published his 'germ theory'
83
What did Pasteur argue in his germ theory
The air contains living microorganisms
These microbes cause decay
Pasteur called these microorganisms in the air
84
How was Louis Pasteur's germ theory received by ordinary people
Initially Pasteur's theory had not impact in England as he was not a doctor and much of his work was about decaying food not disease.
85
How did Koch build on the work of Pasteur
By linking specific diseases to specific microbes including anthrax spores and cholera.
86
How did the industrial revolution effect medicine in the 18th and 19th century
Industrial revolution meant there was a wider access to resources (communications vastly improved)
More people were able to afford education and therefore attitudes in society changed
Urbanisation meant that there was a lot more disease and therefore there was a higher pressure on the government to don something
87
How did the enlightenment and scientific revolution effect attitudes in society
There was a spirit of rationality and scientific inquiry
People began to challenge Galen's ideas of the four humours - it was discovered that air itself was made up if different gasses
88
What were the new explanations for disease in the 18th-19th century
Germ theory - Louis Pasteur
Robert Koch
89
How did Florence Nightingale change hospital care in the 19th century
She brought a new discipline to a job that had a very bad reputation.
She made sure all the wards were clean and hygienic
Made sure water supplies were adequate and patients were fed properly
Makes a contribution to the professionalisation of nursing
90
Who did Nightingale take with her to hospitals during the Crimean war?
38 handpicked nurses
91
Statistically, how did Nightingale improve hospital care in the 19th century
She dropped the death rate by 40%
92
What was nightingale's book called and when was it published
The notes on nursing was published in 1859 - explained her method which emphasised the need for hygiene and a professional attitude
93
How did the Edward Jenner help prevent people from diseases in 18th and 19th century
Edward Jenner made the first breakthrough in the prevention of disease in the 18th centruy time period through the development of a vaccination to stop the spread of small pox
94
When were the nationwide epidemics of small pox in Britain
1722, 1723 and 1740-42
95
What formed the basis for vaccination of small pox?
It was noticed that people who caught a mild form of infection and then recovered from it, did not catch it again.
96
What was inoculation
Pus from a smallpox scab would be rubbed on people but it could only be afforded by the rich.
97
How many people around the world had been vaccinated for small pox
By 1800, 100,00 people
98
When did Napoleon have his entire army vaccinated for small pox
1805
99
Why was the small pox vaccination slower to become popular in Britain
Sometimes even if people had been vaccinated for small pox, they still got the disease, but this was actually due to other factors like how doctors mixed up cow pox and small pox vaccinations or reused needles, discouraging people from vaccination.
100
What transformed Koch's and Jenner's work
Government action - nobody could get a vaccine if the government didn't make it widely available
101
How did treatment of disease change in the 18th-19th century
Treatment changed from a privilege to a right
102
What helped Jenner's work to be widely shared
Jenner wrote a book which meant his work would have been widely shared - opened the door for discovery
103
Why did Jenner's work not have the same affect as Koch's
Jenner didn't reach a wide range of people however Jenner's achievements were notable for the time period he was working in.
104
What happened to spontaneous generation after Pasture disproved it
The theory of spontaneous generation remained influential. It was promoted by Henry Bastian who was a very well respected doctor.
105
How did Lister user Pasteur's work
After reading Pasteur's germ theory Lister experimented with carbolic acid as a means to kill germs. This was the first antiseptic.
106
What was the major problem with Pasteur's theory
He had not identified particular germs with particular diseases
107
What was Koch's title
German doctor
108
What was Pasteur's title
French scientist
109
What was Koch's major discovery
That different microbes or germs may cause different diseases
110
When did Koch discover the bacteria that caused anthrax
1876 - was the first time someone had discovered the specific microbe which cause a specific disease
111
When did Koch discover the germ that caused tuberculosis and cholera and developed method of identifying diseases
1882
112
What was Koch's impact on other individuals
He made it easier for other scientists to study bacteria by developing a method to grow it in a petri dish
113
When did Koch receive a nobel prize
1905
114
Was miasma theory still around during 18th and 19th century.
Yes they theory of miasma still existed and was a rational basis for most ordinary theories - persistent
115
Why did government action increase in the 18th and 19th century
Scale of disease puts much more pressure on government
116
How did changes in the 19th century affect medicine and health - urbanisation
Urbanisation meant that growth of towns created many health problems. Poor housing and infected water supplies made killer diseases spread more rapidly than ever before.
117
Why did they stop reading Galen in the 19th century - knowledge of the world
Scientists gradually discovered that many ancient ideas about the natural world were wrong (eg the theory ion the four humours)
They discovered that air itself is made up on different gasses
118
Why did they stop reading Galen in the 19th century - new understanding of the body
In the 1500s Vesalius had begun a revolution in the understanding of the human body. He showed that Galen's descriptions were incomplete. Encouraged other doctors to do their own dissections
119
Why did they stop reading Galen in the 19th century - the perfection of the microscope
Helped to undermine Galen's work. It proved that Harvey's ideas were right.
120
How did political change affect medicine and health in the 19th century?
By 1900 Parliament was making laws to improve people's health in a way that would have been unthinkable in earlier centuries: for example, forcing towns to instal sewers. This was because the government became more democratic and therefore more accountable.
121
What factors affected medicine and health in the 19th century?
- Urbanisation
- New technology
- Improved communications
- War
- Entrepreneurs
- Scientific medicine
- Political change
122
How did scientific medicine affect medicine and health in the 19th century?
Scientists discovered the links between microorganisms and disease. Disease was seen as an external thing. Pace of change is quick.
123
How did new technology affect medicine and health in the 19th century?
Development ion steel- making helped to produce a thin syringe needle that did not break; improvements in glass-making led to better microscope lenses and the first thermometer.
124
How did improved communications affect medicine and health in the 19th century?
Faster train allowed scientists and doctors to gather at conferences and learn from each others' ideas. By 1900 you could get from London to Edinburgh in 9 hours. There were more newspapers and improved education meant more people could read.
125
How did entrepreneurs affect medicine and health in the 19th century?
Medicine became big business. Some entrepreneurs made millions of pounds from almost useless remedies. However others put money into scientific research to find drugs which would help to cure disease.
126
How did war affect medicine and health in the 19th century?
The Crimean War in the 29th century led to improvements on the standards of nursing and hospitals. It was an opportunity to experiment on people.
127
Criteria for importance questions
- Original theory - was not a breakthrough
- Wide reaching impact on medical thinking
- Do they impact on the work of others
- Wide reaching impact on prevention and treatment
128
How did Lister's carbolic acid affect death rates
46% to 15% in sepsis
129
Statistics that show evidence for the impact of government action
1831-32 - 21.882 deaths
by 1865-66 14,378 deaths
130
How many people did the cholera outbreak of 1854 kill?
Over 20,000 people
131
How did people try to combat cholera
Miasma theory - burning barrels of vinegar to get rid of bad air
Religion - Praying or using lucky charms
Transference - Burning the clothes or bedding of victims, cleaning houses and scattering chloride lime
132
What was the key part of Snow's work that made him groundbreaking
His use of statistics - he mapped out the deaths of cholera in the streets nearby and worked out that there was a high instance of death in and around the water pump of Broad Street. He examplifies the increasing importance of recording
133
What legislation did Snow's work lead to
The public health act of 1875 and encouraged the development of sewage systems
134
What affects did Snow have in attitudes in society
Miasma was dominant but Snow displaces this idea
135
What school did Florence Nightingale set up
The Nightingale school for Nurses
136
What was the importance of the NHS in the 20th century
The NHS represents a significance in the role of government. It created free health care for everyone - universality
Transformed the treatment of disease
137
When was the NHS launched
1948
138
What was the NHS's purpose
To provide healthcare for the entire population funded through national insurance contributions
139
What was the NHS based on the principal of
Medical care should be free at the point of delivery
140
How did the NHS transform hospitals
Hospitals became major centres for the use of high-tech treatments. Radiotherapy and chemotherapy.
141
How did new technology compliment the introduction of new medicines
The use of antibiotics and other medicines has been facilitated by mass production of pills, the development of capsules to store drugs means they can be consumed more easily. Insulin pumps can deliver insulin without the need of injections.
142
How many lives has penicillin saved
over 200 million lives
143
What has been the key factor increasing the prevention of disease in the 20th century
the laissez-faire attitude which characterised the 20th century had been abandoned
144
What caused the government to take more action in the 20th century
Improved understanding of prevention gave the government a new motivation to intervene and prevent disease.
145
What action did the government take to help prevent disease in the 20th century
Compulsory vaccinations
Increased
146
When was the first vaccination campaign
1942 to eradicate diphtheria
147
Before the diphtheria vaccination campaign how many people were dying
3,000 children died per year
148
What did central government funding for vaccinations ensure
Ensured that people had equal access to the service and that the campaign was effective.
149
What did the government do to provide a healthy environment
They passed more legislation for example - the clean air acts of 1956-1968
Also the health act of 2006 made it illegal to smoke in all workplaces
150
How do the government promote healthier lifestyles through campaigns
- Advertising campaigns warning against the dangers of smoking, binge drinking and unprotected sex
- Events such as Stoptober which encourage people to stop smoking for a month
- Initiatives encouraging proper to eat more healthy and get more exercise
151
Factors enabling the development of penicillin
- Institutions
- Technology
- Individuals
- Attitudes in society
- Science
152
How did institution enable the development of penicillin
The US government agreed to fund Florey's research
Allows communities for scientists to work
153
How did attitudes in society enable the development of penicillin
The need to find solutions for treatment became even more important after world war 2
People afore willing to take risks and experiment
Scientific knowledge displaced religion
154
How did science enable the development of penicillin
Scientists were able to observe how penicillin attacked staphylococcus bacteria and this enabled them to modify it to attack other types of bacteria
155
How did technology enable the development of penicillin
The development of new way of mass producing and and strong penicillin made the drug available in vast quantities. More widely available
156
What scientists built on the work of Flemmingand what does this show
Florey and Chain - shows us that Scientists our working much more cooperatively
157
When did Flemming, Lorey and Chain win a nobel prize
1945
158
Why did nobody think that Fleming's article was important
Although Fleming's work was original, it never actually had a wide reaching impact in society - it was not tested on humans so it was not easily accepted
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How did Florey and Chain help to build on Fleming's work
They grew as much penicillin as possible until they had enough to test on one person. This enabled the work to be more accepted as it showed evidence of its success -gave the discovery more practical application
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When and who developed a vaccine for polio
In 1954 American Scientist Jonas Salk, developed a vaccine for Polio
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Main difference between ideas about causation of disease from 18th century to 20th century
Germ theory identified bacteria as the main cause of disease but 20th century medicine moved beyond this and looked at genetics as a major cause of disease.
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What did the discovery of genetics mean
Meant that scientists could explore a whole range of disease which have been inherited through the sufferer's genes
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How was the understanding of causation of disease developed in the 20th century (in terms of lifestyle)
The idea that lifestyle may affect health is not new yet in the 20th century the ideas were much more widespread and better informed.
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Lifestyle factors that contribute to disease
Being overweight, lack of exercise, drinking alcohol, poor diet and poverty
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How did improved technology develop the understanding of causation of disease
More effective means of diagnosis has been underpinned by new technological development s which enable scientists to examine the body much more closely than at any time before.
helped the discovery of DNA
Discovery pr X-rays and microscopes
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How did technology help the discovery or DNA
The discovery of DNA would not have been possible without computers as the informations carried in human DNA would fill 80,000 books. Computers helped information and ideas be spread around the world really quickly
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Why was the development of electronic microscopes and X-rays pivotal
The microscope ensured scientists could see smaller objets in much more detail and the x-ray allowed DNA to be photographed
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What did Rosalind Franklin do
Developed a technique to allow X-rays to photograph DNA
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Who discovered DNA
Crick and Watson
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Causation of lung cancer
- medical evidence has proved conclusively that cigarette smoking is the major reason for contracting lung cancer.
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What percent of cases are a result of smoking
90%
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How did the government promote prevention of lung cancer
Governments have launched major campaigns to prevent people developing lung cancer
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Treatment of cancer
Lung cancer is hard to treat as when the disease is detected it is already quite advanced
There is no national screening process
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How did James Watson and Alexander Crick contribute to health in modern Britain
The understanding of causation was widened and deepened by the discovery that some diseases were genetic in origin.
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Individuals now work in unison, how does that help the development of medicine
By creating intellectual circles, the development is sped up and cross referencing is made much easier. - INSTITUTIONALISED
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How do individuals rely on government action
Without government action, individuals ideas would not have spread
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How did war speed up the advancment of medical procedures
War gave us high stake situation which helped the professionalisation of nursing
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How did society change in the 20th/21st century
Science permeates society and society is becoming much more secular
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How did the response from government change from 19th century to modern day
In the 19th century, the government was reactive and responded to individuals at a delay where as the government in modern day is much more proactive - planning ahead in their approach.
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How did war effect government action
When people came back from war, the expectation from the government was higher
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Features of the public health act of 1875
Said that local authorities had to provide clean water supplies, build sewerage systems and appoint a medical officer.
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