History of Planning

Question 1

April 12, 1901 - NY Tenement House Law

Answer 1

The New York State Tenement House Act of 1901, or “New Tenement Law,” was a housing reform law aimed at improving living conditions in New York’s tenement buildings. Technically a tenement was any building that housed three or more families, but the term had come to mean housing for poor families that lacked proper amenities. The law set requirements for new buildings to improve light and air quality for residents, including external-facing windows in each room, an open courtyard, improved ventilation, indoor toilets, and better fire safety.

Question 2

June, 1902 - Early City Planning Commission

Answer 2

Cleveland’s chapter of the Architectural Institute of America and the city’s Chamber of Commerce presented a bill to form a “Board of City Planning for Ohio Cities.” Ohio Gov. George Nash fulfilled the bill by appointing Daniel Burnham, John Carrere, and Arnold Brunner as the Group Plan Commission for Cleveland. Although not technically a city planning commission, this group essentially acted like one, with the power to give advice about many broad planning improvements in the city.

Question 3

January 15, 1902 - McMillan Plan

Answer 3

The Senate Park Commission wrote the McMillan Plan, a landmark comprehensive planning document, to revive and update the L’Enfant Plan for Washington, D.C. The McMillan Plan focused on the city’s parks and monuments. It redesigned the National Mall and determined the locations of the Lincoln Memorial, Ulysses S. Grant Memorial, Union Station, and U.S. Department of Agriculture Building, among other changes. The McMillan Plan is still the basis of most of Washington, D.C.’s planning, and helped boost the career of Daniel Burnham, who worked on the plan. It could be considered the first real expression in the United States of the City Beautiful movement, which emphasized grandeur and beautification in planning.

Question 4

Sept, 1903 - Construction of Letchworth

Answer 4

Construction commenced on Letchworth, England, the first Garden City, based on the principles of Ebenezer Howard. The Garden City Movement focused on creating self-contained communities with residences, industry, and agriculture, surrounded by undeveloped green areas. These planned communities inspired the similar New Town movement in the United States.

Question 5

October 22, 1903 - Public Lands Commission

Answer 5

President Theodore Roosevelt appointed the second Public Lands Commission to study public land policy and laws for open range and federal lands. The commission was fronted by Gifford Pinchot, head of the Bureau of Forestry and a founder of the modern conservation movement. The group made several recommendations for the use of public lands for grazing and timber purposes, many of which were controversial with livestock, lumber, and mining interests.

Question 6

June 8th, 1906 - Antiquities Act

Answer 6

President Theodore Roosevelt signed the Antiquities Act into law to preserve archeological sites on public lands. The act also authorized the president to protect landmarks, structures, and objects of historic or scientific interest by designating them as national monuments. It was a landmark in the preservation of historic places and structures, as well as cultural resources. Devils Tower in Wyoming was the first monument to be protected under the act.

Question 7

1907 - NY Congestion Committee

Answer 7

Florence Kelley and Mary Simkhovitch, two veterans of New York’s settlement house movement, founded the Committee on Congestion of Population in New York to look at solutions for overcrowding in poor parts of the city. The organization hired Benjamin Marsh as its first executive secretary. The reform coalition recruited from more than two dozen organizations and had a broad focus, but its first project was the New York Congestion Exhibit of 1908.

Question 8

March 26th, 1907 - First Official City Planning Commission

Answer 8

Hartford, Connecticut, became the first city in the United States with an official and permanent City Planning Commission. Prior to this, planning commissions were generally disbanded once a plan had been developed. A planning commission makes recommendations about the planning and zoning of a city or town to the local council.

Question 9

March 9th, 1908 - NY Congestion Exhibit

Answer 9

The New York Congestion Exhibit began at the Museum of Natural History in New York City. The event was organized by social reformers, including Florence Kelley, Lillian Wald, Mary Simkhovitch, and Gaylord White, who believed that urban congestion was the primary cause of problems with housing, child labor, and poverty. After three weeks at the museum, the exhibit toured around the country, gradually pushing city administrators to launch commissions to look into congestion.

Question 10

Oct. 1, 1908 - Ford Launches Model T

Answer 10

Ford began production of the Model T. Assembly line production for the car kept its price relatively low ($850 in 1908, but down to less than $300 in 1925). Its affordability opened up car ownership to a much wider range of Americans and spurred the country’s car culture. In turn, planners had to find a way to fit more cars on roads and in communities.

Question 11

June 4th, 1909 - Burnham’s Plan of Chicago

Answer 11

The Plan of Chicago, written by Daniel Burnham and Edward Bennett, was the first comprehensive metropolitan plan in the United States. Based on three years of research into how city growth and infrastructure impacted its residents, the plan concentrated on physical improvements, such as new parks, lakefront upgrades, new civic and cultural centers, and transportation development. The Burnham Plan remains highly influential to the philosophy and process of planning cities

Question 12

1909 - Forrest Hills Gardens

Answer 12

The Russell Sage Foundation commissioned the design and construction of Forest Hill Gardens, the first planned “garden suburb” in the United States, with the goal of providing mixed-income housing surrounded by green spaces. Frederick Law Olmsted Jr. planned the community, while architect Grosvenor Atterbury designed many of the houses. Although the community showed the possibility of building affordably for a range of incomes, it became a victim of its own popularity, eventually becoming one of the highest-priced enclaves in Queens, New York.

Question 13

1909 - First Course in City Planning

Answer 13

Harvard College introduced “The Principles of City Planning,” the first college course in city planning, through its Landscape Architecture department. The university was also the first to launch programs in city and regional planning, in 1923, and urban design, in 1960.

Question 14

May 21, 1909 - First National Conference on City Planning

Answer 14

Benjamin Marsh, at the impetus of the Committee on Congestion of Population, organized the first national meeting on planning, the National Conference on City Planning, in Washington, D.C. Most of the prominent urbanists of the time attended the event, including Frederick Law Olmsted, John Nolen, and George Ford. The conference led directly to the creation of the American City Planning Institute in 1917.

Question 15

1911 - Manual of the Plan of Chicago

Answer 15

Manual of the Plan of Chicago was written by Walter Moody and distributed to all schools in Chicago. The text focused on the development of the 1909 Plan of Chicago, the city’s history, and its transportation problems. Six editions of the manual were published up through 1924, making it the first initiative to educate children about planning.

Question 16

1913 - Early Version of Zoning

Answer 16

Legislatures in New York, Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Illinois separately allowed some cities to create residential districts where no manufacturing or commercial establishments could operate. Although the governor of Illinois vetoed the act in that state, the moves are now seen as an early version of zoning.

Question 17

Jan. 1914 - Carrying Out the City Plan

Answer 17

At the request of Frederick Law Olmsted Jr., Boston attorney Flavel Shurtleff wrote Carrying Out the City Plan, the first text on the legal framework for city planning. The book was based on two years of research, including examining city planning outside of the United States. Shurtleff found that communities need to share information and that planning commissions are vital to plans being implemented.

Question 18

March 1914 - First Municipally Employed City Planner

Answer 18

Harland Bartholomew became the first full-time public-sector city planner in the United States when he was hired by Newark, New Jersey. Bartholomew came to the city in 1912 to help engineering firm E.P. Goodrich develop a comprehensive plan, and he was retained to stay on after Newark ended its contract with Goodrich. He completed the plan in 1915.

Question 19

1915 - Cities in Evolution

Answer 19

Scottish sociologist Sir Patrick Geddes, a pioneer in the field of urban planning, published the book Cities in Evolution. Geddes pushed for “constructive and conservative” changes to improve a community, rather than sweeping, monolithic plans, which he believed was less destructive to neighborhood life and would do a better job of preventing congestion. He also promoted observation of communities based on the scientific method and civic surveys. Geddes was a major influence on other planners, including Lewis Mumford, Raymond Unwin, and Frank Mears.

Question 20

July 25, 1916 - Comprehensive Zoning Resolution

Answer 20

The 1916 Zoning Resolution was written by George McAneny and Edward Bassett as a response to concerns about overdevelopment in New York City. The resolution divided the city into “zones” based on the primary activity in that area, and created building height and setback guidelines for each zone. It is considered the first citywide zoning code in the United States.

Question 21

August 15th, 1916 - National Park Service

Answer 21

President Woodrow Wilson signed a bill creating the National Park Service within the U.S. Department of the Interior, which was tasked with preserving natural and historic areas in the United States. The responsibilities of the service have grown from the original 35 national parks and monuments under its control to more than 400 national parks, such as Great Smoky Mountains National Park and the Grand Canyon National Park.

Question 22

May 1917 - American City Planning Institute

Answer 22

The American City Planning Institute, one of the predecessors of the American Planning Association, was founded, with Frederick Law Olmsted Jr. as its first president. The organization served to formalize the group that had organized the first National Conference on City Planning in 1909. The American City Planning Institute later became the American Institute of Planners.

Question 23

January 1st, 1920 - Majority of Americans Live in Urban Areas

Answer 23

The 1920 U.S. Census was the first to report that more than half of the nation’s population was living in urban areas, showing a shift away from rural regions.

Question 24

October 1921 - Proposal of Appalachian Trail

Answer 24

Pioneering conservationist, forester, and planner Benton McKaye published an article in the Journal of the American Institute of Architects proposing the construction of the Appalachian Trail. “An Appalachian Trail: A Project in Regional Planning” highlighted the benefits of the trail as recreation, health and recuperation, and employment opportunities. The first section of the trail opened on October 7, 1923.

Question 25

1922 - Country Club Plaza

Answer 25

Developer J.C. Nichols established Country Club Plaza, which eventually grew into a 14-block shopping center. The Kansas City, Missouri, development is considered the first car-oriented shopping center, as it included gas stations and a significant amount of free parking. It was also one of the first shopping centers to be located outside of a downtown central business district.

Question 26

Feb. 10th, 1922 - Standard State Zoning Enabling Act

Answer 26

A U.S. Department of Commerce committee issued the third draft of the Standard State Zoning Enabling Act, a model law developed to help states create zoning restrictions in their jurisdictions. This draft contained important language defining a zoning commission and calling for a plan for zoning regulations. This was followed in 1927 by A Standard City Planning Enabling Act to help states understand the organization and powers of city and regional planning commissions, the making of city and regional plans, and controlling the layout of new subdivisions. These acts still provide the institutional structure for planning and zoning in many states.

Question 27

Dec. 11th, 1922 - Creation of Regulatory Taking

Answer 27

A U.S. Department of Commerce committee issued the third draft of the Standard State Zoning Enabling Act, a model law developed to help states create zoning restrictions in their jurisdictions. This draft contained important language defining a zoning commission and calling for a plan for zoning regulations. This was followed in 1927 by A Standard City Planning Enabling Act to help states understand the organization and powers of city and regional planning commissions, the making of city and regional plans, and controlling the layout of new subdivisions. These acts still provide the institutional structure for planning and zoning in many states.

Question 28

1923 - Herlihy Plans Boston

Answer 28

Elisabeth May Herlihy guided Boston in adopting its first comprehensive zoning ordinance, making her one of the first women to be seen as an expert in planning. She was secretary and a member of the Boston City Planning Board, and she later guided the effort to build the city's Central Artery. Herlihy was the first woman to join the American City Planning Institute.

Question 29

April 18th, 1923 - Formation of RPAA

Answer 29

The Regional Planning Association of America held its first meeting. The organization was a collaborative group of New York City-based thinkers on city and regional planning, including Clarence Stein, Benton MacKaye, Lewis Mumford, Henry Wright, and Alexander Bing. For the next decade, the RPAA worked together on creative planning projects such as the prototype communities Sunnyside Homes, Queens, and Radburn, New Jersey. It also worked toward open space preservation in urban regions and housing equity.

Question 30

1924 - Moses Comes to Power

Answer 30

Robert Moses was named chairman of the New York State Council of Parks. This, along with positions as commissioner of the New York City Department of Parks, commissioner of the New York City Planning Commission, and chairman of the New York State Power Authority, among many others, made Moses one of the most influential and powerful people in urban development. Moses has been praised for greatly increasing the amount of parkland in New York City and helping revive the region after the Great Depression. He also has been criticized for being an autocrat and encouraging racial segregation with his developments.

Question 31

1925 - First Comprehensive Plan

Answer 31

Cincinnati became the first American city to have a comprehensive plan approved and adopted into law by a city council. Previously, comprehensive plans had been developed by civic organizations and adopted by cities. Alfred Bettman, Ladislas Segoe, George Ford, and Ernest Goodrich worked on the Official Plan of the City of Cincinnati, which included factors like schools and play yards, garbage and refuse disposal, ways to finance improvements, and other municipal issues.

Question 32

1925 - First State-Level Land-Use Plan

Answer 32

The New York State Housing and Regional Planning Commission, chaired by Clarence Stein, published the first state-level land-use plan in the United States. The plan, which was primarily written by Henry Wright, focused on providing transportation corridors and settlement areas, as well as on preserving rural land. A state-level land-use plan can promote effective planning for factors that have an impact outside of one community, such as growth and environmental protection.

Question 33

Nov. 22, 1926 - Euclid V. Amber Tackles Zoning

Answer 33

In the case of Village of Euclid, Ohio, v. Ambler Realty Co., the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the village of Euclid did not infringe on the rights of Ambler Realty by establishing its zoning ordinance. The ruling more broadly affirmed the constituationality of zoning and led to the growth of zoning ordinances across the United States.

Question 34

1928 - Construction of Radburn, New Jersey Begins

Answer 34

Construction began on Radburn, New Jersey, a community designed with the intention of adapting the British Garden City concept to American legal and social standards. Radburn was a Regional Planning Association of America project designed by Clarence Stein and Henry Wright, with landscape architecture by Marjorie Sewell Cautley. Innovations included the separation of automobile traffic, the use of the superblock to cluster different types of housing around parkland, and creation of a community organization to handle some municipal functions.

Question 35

1929 - Perry's Neighborhood Unit

Answer 35

Clarence Perry published his monograph "The Neighborhood Unit," which provided a framework for the concept of a neighborhood within a city. His model focused on a walkable residential district centered around a community-oriented school, with a business district on the edge and graded streets to limit external traffic through the neighborhood. Although designed for cities, the neighborhood unit became the basis for much of suburban development in the mid-20th century. Perry's model was extremely popular in planning, although it has been criticized for being overly based in nostalgia for rural living and for encouraging racial, ethnic, religious, and economic segregation.

Question 36

1931 - First Historic District Ordinance

Answer 36

Charleston, South Carolina, became the first city in the United States to pass an ordinance to protect a historic district. The Charleston Historic District covers most of the city's downtown residential area and is a National Landmark Historic District.

Question 37

1933 - Christaller's Central Place Theory

Answer 37

German geographer Walter Christaller developed his Central Place Theory in order to model patterns in the spatial arrangement, size, and numbers of communities in a region. The model also looked at the economic relationships of these communities, such as the market area that each settlement could serve. Although the theory has been criticized as being overly rigid and based on flawed assumptions, it was still an influential work in the study of community relationships

Question 38

May 18th, 1933 - Tennessee Valley Authority

Answer 38

President Franklin Roosevelt signed the TVA Act, creating the Tennessee Valley Authority in the Tennessee River Valley across seven states. The corporation was federally owned in response to distrust of privately owned utility companies. The TVA built 16 hydroelectric dams between 1933 and 1944, using hydropower to improve electricity access to more than 40,000 square miles of the region, which in turn attracted industry and jobs. The corporation also worked on forest restoration to prevent soil erosion and taught better farming techniques.

Question 39

June 16th, 1933 - Public Works Administration

Answer 39

The National Industrial Recovery Act was passed, creating the Public Works Administration, which planned and funded large-scale public works such as roads, schools, dams, and bridges. As part of the New Deal program that responded to the Great Depression, the PWA was intended to increase employment and improve the economy.

Question 40

July 20th, 1933 - National Planning Board

Answer 40

The National Planning Board was established under the authority of the Public Works Administration. The board, which included Frederick Delano, Charles Merriam, Wesley Mitchell, and Charles Eliot, worked to promote the idea of planning in public works and push for comprehensive regional plans. Over the next decade, the NPB evolved into the National Resources Board, the National Resources Council, and finally the National Resources Planning Board.

Question 41

January 1934 - First Multistate Regional Planning Commission

Answer 41

Representatives of the planning boards of Washington, Oregon, Idaho, and Montana formed the first multistate regional planning commission. The commission focused on the need to plan for new agricultural and industrial development in response to federal investment in power, reclamation, and navigation projects. Multistate regional planning commissions can tackle planning-related issues that have an impact across a broader region than just one state.

Question 42

1934 - American Society of Planning Officials

Answer 42

The American Society of Planning Officials was formed with Walter Blucher as executive director. The group's membership primarily consisted of public officials involved in planning, such as citizen planning commissioners and city managers. ASPO aimed to improve communication among professional planners and better distribute information about planning. ASPO was one of two organizations that merged in 1978 to form the American Planning Association.

Question 43

June 27th, 1934 - Housing Act of 1934 Sparks Suburbs

Answer 43

President Franklin Roosevelt signed the National Housing Act into law. The law created the Federal Housing Administration and the Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation as part of a broader attempt to revive the housing market during the Great Depression. The FHA standardized the 30-year, low-interest mortgage, spurring a post-war housing boom in which national home ownership rate jumped to almost 70 percent of households and more and more Americans moved to suburbs.

Question 44

1935 - HOLCS's Redlining Maps

Answer 44

The Federal Home Loan Bank Board commissioned the Home Owners' Loan Corporation to appraise real estate risk levels in 239 cities. The HOLC's security maps consistently graded African American neighborhoods as "hazardous." These maps, along with similar resources developed by private firms, institutionalized the already existent practice of "redlining," or refusing to give mortgage loans in areas where mostly African Americans lived.

Question 45

May 1st, 1935 - Resettlement Administration

Answer 45

President Franklin Roosevelt established the Resettlement Administration with the goal of helping Americans from struggling urban and rural areas. The RA focused on providing financial aid for these Americans, improving land conservation, and building new infrastructure. The administration highlighted the importance of cooperation and collective living for farm families and tenant farmers, moving many into model farm communities and planned communities. The agency also created the three Greenbelt communities of Greenbelt, Maryland; Greenhills, Ohio; and Greendale, Wisconsin, which were based on Ebenezer Howard's Garden City concept. Conservatives criticized these initiatives as socialistic, and the RA was incorporated into the new Farm Security Administration in 1937.

Question 46

May 1935 - The Planners' Journal Launches

Answer 46

The American Institute of Planners published the first volume of The Planners' Journal. The publication became Journal of the American Institute of Planners in 1945 and Journal of the American Planning Association in 1979. The journal focuses on research, commentaries, and book reviews for practicing planners, policy makers, scholars, students, and citizens of urban, suburban, and rural areas.

Question 47

September 1st, 1937 - US Housing Act Becomes Law

Answer 47

President Franklin Roosevelt signed the United States Housing Act into law. The act, also known as the Wagner-Steagall Act, focused primarily on improving housing for poor Americans. It created the U.S. Housing Authority, which loaned about $800 million between 1937 and 1941 to build low-rent housing developments. Much of the act was drafted by public housing advocate and planning educator Catherine Bauer Wurster, who also served as Director of Research and Information of the Housing Authority for two years.

Question 48

1939 - ACPI Becomes American Institute of Planners

Answer 48

The American City Planning Institute changed its name to the American Institute of Planners.

Question 49

1939 - AIP Screens Documentary

Answer 49

The American Institute of Planners produced a documentary film called The City and screened it at the New York World's Fair. The documentary compared the congestion and stress of urban living with the more relaxed environment of planned communities. It was based on an idea by Catherine Bauer Wurster, written by Lewis Mumford and Pare Lorentz, and scored by Aaron Copeland. The City was selected for the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress in 1998.

Question 50

1939 - Formation of Telesis

Answer 50

Telesis, a group of architects, landscape architects, and urban planners, formed with the intention of preserving and enhancing the environmental and cultural qualities of the San Francisco Bay region. The group, with members including T.J. Kent, Catherine Bauer Wurster, Corwin Mocine, and William Spangle, also looked to use social criteria to solve physical problems and include the public in planning. Telesis produced an exhibit on planning at the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art and helped develop the planning program at the University of California at Berkeley.

Question 51

April 1, 1940 - Cities Start Losing Population to Suburbs

Answer 51

For the first time, the U.S. Census showed more population growth in suburbs than in central cities.

Question 52

June 22nd, 1944 - GI Bill Passes

Answer 52

The Serviceman’s Readjustment Act, or G.I. Bill, was signed into law by President Franklin Roosevelt. The bill provided a variety of benefits to World War II veterans, including medical care, college tuition, unemployment benefits, and job counseling. Through the bill, veterans also had access to guaranteed loans to buy a home, farm, or business. This contributed to the increase in suburbanization as many more people could afford to buy new houses.

Question 53

Oct. 28th, 1946 - Park Forest, Illinois

Answer 53

Nathan Manilow, Carroll Sweet, and Philip Klutznick held a press conference to announce the development of Park Forest, Illinois, as a new self-governing community. The planned community was designed by Elbert Peets to attract veterans returning from World War II, and included a large park system, an outdoor shopping center, and a town hall. Park Forest was emblematic of the new suburbs that sprang up following the G.I. Bill of 1944.

Question 54

Oct. 1st, 1947 - Development of Levittown, NY

Answer 54

Construction began on Levittown, New York, using mass-production strategies that built a house every 16 minutes during the peak of development. Levitt and Sons built the town between 1947 and 1951, and another near Philadelphia between 1952 and 1958, to capitalize on veterans returning from World War II and looking for housing. Like many suburban communities, Levittown was segregated, with a clause in the standard lease for homes limiting use and occupation to "members of the Caucasian race." The Committee to End Discrimination in Levittown fought against the clause, leading to it being removed in 1949, although the community remained primarily white.

Question 55

Jan 10th, 1948 - Professional Code of Conduct for Planners

Answer 55

Construction began on Levittown, New York, using mass-production strategies that built a house every 16 minutes during the peak of development. Levitt and Sons built the town between 1947 and 1951, and another near Philadelphia between 1952 and 1958, to capitalize on veterans returning from World War II and looking for housing. Like many suburban communities, Levittown was segregated, with a clause in the standard lease for homes limiting use and occupation to "members of the Caucasian race." The Committee to End Discrimination in Levittown fought against the clause, leading to it being removed in 1949, although the community remained primarily white.

Question 56

May 3rd, 1948 - Racially Restrictive Covenants Banned

Answer 56

The U.S. Supreme Court ruled that racially restrictive covenants that prohibit people of a certain race from renting or owning real property in a specific area are unenforcable in court. The case centered around an African American family that moved into a neighborhood with a racially restrictive covenant and was sued by a white family that wanted to enforce the covenant. The court found that although such covenants did not violate the 14th Amendment, their enforcement by state courts did.

Question 57

1949 - Planned Unit Developments

Answer 57

Prince George's County, Maryland, created what could be considered the first planned unit development, or planned combination of multiple land uses within one development. The Prince George's County community permitted "the development of a large tract of land as a complete neighborhood unit," including housing, shopping, parking, schools, parks, and other community facilities.

Question 58

July 15th, 1949 - US Comprehensive Housing Legislation

Answer 58

The Housing Act of 1949, part of President Harry Truman's Fair Deal initiative, allocated funding to improve housing in urban areas, especially for America's poor, in hopes of countering the effects of suburbanization. The act's main elements included slum clearance and urban renewal, building more public housing, and expanding Federal Housing Authority mortgage insurance. The act has been criticized for ultimately eliminating more housing than it created, as well as for destroying cheaper housing in minority neighborhoods and replacing it with more expensive alternatives that residents could not afford. However, it also made open-space land, neighborhood facilities, and basic water and sewer facilities eligible for federal assistance.

Question 59

1952 - First African American To Earn Planning Master's Degree

Answer 59

Samuel Cullers was possibly the first African American to earn a graduate degree in city planning, receiving his master's from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1952. Cullers was later involved in a discrimination complaint against McKinley Park Homes in Hartford, Connecticut, after his apartment rental application was rejected despite evidence that there were apartments available. He also worked as a planner in Thailand, Canada, and Chicago.

Question 60

August 2nd, 1954 - Housing Act of 1954

Answer 60

The Housing Act of 1954, managed by the Federal Housing Authority, provided funding to support urban renewal and slum prevention, as opposed to redevelopment. The legislation also created the 701 program, which funded planning assistance for communities, contributing to the spread of planning and comprehensive plans throughout the United States. The 701 program originally targeted small local governments, but it was so popular that it was gradually expanded to cover almost all jurisdiction types in the country.

Question 61

November 22nd, 1954 - Supreme Court Rules on Eminent Domain

Answer 61

In Berman v. Parker, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that Congress can seize property for any public purpose under eminent domain. The case centered around the District of Columbia Redevelopment Land Agency seizing property for the purpose of beautification, which the appellants had argued violated the Fifth Amendment's taking clause.

Question 62

1955 - Case Study of Racism in Public Housing

Answer 62

Martin Meyerson and Edward Banfield published Politics, Planning, and the Public Interest: The Case of Public Housing in Chicago, a landmark case study on race and public housing. They found that attempts by urban planners to implement progressive policies were subverted by societal racism.

Question 63

June 29th, 1956 - Federal Aid Highway Act

Answer 63

President Dwight Eisenhower signed the Federal Aid Highway Act, or National Interstate and Defense Highways Act, into law, with a plan to fund 41,000 miles of interstate highways over a period of 10 years. Under the act, 90 percent of construction costs came from a Highway Trust Fund, while states paid the remaining 10 percent. The act contributed to an increase in driving by Americans, as well as to the growth of suburbs and the decline of cities.

Question 64

1958 - First Urban Growth Boundary

Answer 64

Lexington, Kentucky, became the first city to enact an urban growth boundary, a growth management initiative that limited new development to a specific area in the city. An urban growth boundary is intended to prevent urban sprawl into agricultural and rural land. In Lexington, the goal was to protect bluegrass and horse farms that were considered part of the city's identity.

Question 65

June 1960 - Image of the City

Answer 65

Kevin Lynch published The Image of the City, a groundbreaking look at how a city is viewed by its residents. He conducted a study in Boston, Los Angeles, and Jersey City, and found that people used five components to process their city: paths, edges, districts, nodes, and landmarks. Planners have used this information to make cities more legible and improve wayfinding

Question 66

1961 - Jacobs Writes on Cities

Answer 66

Jane Jacobs, a journalist with no professional architectural or planning experience, published The Death and Life of Great American Cities, one of the best-known books about urban planning. She described the book as "an attack on current city planning and rebuilding," which she criticized for losing touch with the people who live in cities. Jacobs's book eventually led the urban planning field to see urban renewal more critically and develop more appreciation for existing structures and street patterns. It also directly inspired the New Urbanism movement in planning.

Question 67

1961 - Hawaii Kicks Off Growth Management

Answer 67

Hawaii passed the Land Use Law, which classified all state lands as urban, rural, agricultural, or conservation, with a statewide Land Use Commission created to oversee the law. The Land Use Law is seen as the start of the "quiet revolution" that shifted the emphasis from local to statewide land-use planning in order to tackle cross-regional issues such as environmental concerns. It also is considered to have kicked off the first wave of growth management, which also included the rulings in Golden v. Ramapo in 1972 and Construction Industry Association, Sonoma County v. City of Petaluma in 1975, as well as Oregon's launch of comprehensive growth management in 1973.

Question 68

June 30th, 1961 - Housing Act of 1961

Answer 68

The Housing Act of 1961 was approved by President John Kennedy, authorizing $4.9 billion in new funding for a wide array of housing programs. This included funding for acquiring open-space land, improving mass transportation, urban renewal, and building farm housing. The American Society of Planning Officials hailed the act as "provid[ing] opportunities never before possible for coordinated planning of community development."

Question 69

March 26th, 1962 - Power Shifts to Cities

Answer 69

The U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Baker v. Carr that federal courts can review how seats are distributed in a state legislature and whether they are disproportionate. The ruling shifted power from rural to urban representatives in state legislatures. This led to "urban issues" like mass transportation, civil rights, and slum housing taking priority in following years.

Question 70

Sept. 27th, 1962 - Silent Springs

Answer 70

Rachel Carson published Silent Spring, which described the negative impacts of pesticides on nature. The book popularized the concept that humans can damage the environment, sparking a growth in interest in environmentalism and sustainability in many arenas of American life. This included the field of planning, which saw the birth of sustainable development and smart growth. It also led to the creation of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

Question 71

1964 - Urban Mass Transportation Act

Answer 71

President Lyndon Johnson's Urban Mass Transportation Act provided funding for mass transportation projects in cities. It also created the Urban Mass Transportation Administration, later the Federal Transit Administration. The act shifted the primary mode of financing mass transportation projects to federal grants and loans.

Question 72

1964 - The Urban General Plan

Answer 72

T.J. Kent, Jr. published his seminal planning textbook The Urban General Plan, which he also intended as a guide for nonplanners and government officials. The book lays out the history of the use, characteristics, and purpose of the urban comprehensive plan, as well as its status at the time of publication. Kent also served as city planning director and deputy mayor for development for San Francisco, and founded and chaired the Department of City and Regional Planning at the University of California at Berkeley.

Question 73

1964 - Founding of ARCH

Answer 73

The Architects' Renewal Committee in Harlem, one of the first community design centers, was founded. Community design centers are organizations dedicated to putting the philosophy of advocacy planning into practice by helping with and getting residents involved in the planning, design, and development of low- and moderate-income communities. Other important CDCs include Barrio Planners, which worked in Hispanic communities in Southern California starting in 1971, and Asian Neighborhood Design, which has been active in San Francisco's Chinatown community since 1973.

Question 74

April 10th, 1964 - Founding of Reston, Virginia

Answer 74

Robert Simon, Jr., planned Reston, Virginia, as a 6,750-acre new town based on seven principles, including walkability, density, access to nature and green space, and racial and wealth diversity. The original design included seven village centers (reduced to five in development), each with its own architectural design and central plaza, as well as a town center. Reston's unique design required Simon to get Fairfax County, Virginia, to create a new zoning designation: the planned residential community. Reston's development cost forced Simon to bring in Gulf Oil as a funder in 1967, and the company eventually fired him.

Question 75

August 17, 1964 - Launch of PEO

Answer 75

A group of planners influenced by backlash to urban renewal movements and broader social change founded Planners for Equal Opportunity to push the profession toward social reform. The group thought that planners should take a more active role in countering racial discrimination, poverty, and oppression. PEO conducted its own conferences, but also held meetings during American Institute of Planners conferences and worked to influence AIP policy and practices. PEO disbanded in 1974, but the Planners Network carried many of its priorities and activities forward.

Question 76

August 20th, 1964 - Creation of CAPs

Answer 76

Title II of the federal Economic Opportunity Act established Community Action Programs, which were aimed at eliminating poverty. The programs were controversial because they gave the power for deciding how money would be allocated to a community's impoverished population as opposed to elected officials. Although CAPs were generally ineffective because of high expectations and insufficient funding, among other issues, they raised awareness in the planning field of the need to include the community and look beyond mere physical redevelopment to social, economic, and political development as well.

Question 77

Sept 9th, 1965 - HUD Launches

Answer 77

The Department of Housing and Urban Development Act of 1965 created the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development as a cabinet-level agency. Robert Weaver was the first secretary of the department, making him the first African American appointed to a cabinet position in the U.S. government. HUD's mission is to make sure that there is equal access to housing and community-based employment opportunities, as well as to fund new housing, public housing, and housing rehabilitation projects. The department also insures mortgages and protects consumers. HUD is an important source of financing for planning projects.

Question 78

November 1965 - Advocacy Planning

Answer 78

The Journal of the American Institute of Planners published "Advocacy and Pluralism in Planning" by Paul Davidoff, which laid out the concept of advocacy planning. He argued that planners needed to advocate for the poor and powerless, which became an influential concept among activist planners in the 1960s and 1970s. Davidoff later founded the Suburban Action Institute to take legal action against exclusionary zoning. APA's Advancing Diversity and Social Change in Honor of Paul Davidoff award continues his legacy.

Question 79

July 10th, 1966 - King Targets Housing Discrimination

Answer 79

Martin Luther King, Jr. spoke at a rally in Soldier Field in Chicago in support of the Chicago Freedom Movement. The movement was aimed at eliminating racially discriminatory practices in Chicago, including housing issues like mortgage and loan discrimination. The next day, King presented a list of demands to Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley, who was hostile to the movement. Daley eventually agreed to collaborate on an open-housing agreement, which is considered a forerunner to the Civil Rights Act of 1968, but King continually criticized Daley for not taking action on the agreement.

Question 80

October 15th, 1966 - National Historic Preservation Act

Answer 80

Martin Luther King, Jr. spoke at a rally in Soldier Field in Chicago in support of the Chicago Freedom Movement. The movement was aimed at eliminating racially discriminatory practices in Chicago, including housing issues like mortgage and loan discrimination. The next day, King presented a list of demands to Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley, who was hostile to the movement. Daley eventually agreed to collaborate on an open-housing agreement, which is considered a forerunner to the Civil Rights Act of 1968, but King continually criticized Daley for not taking action on the agreement.

Question 81

November 3rd, 1966 - Model Cities Program

Answer 81

The Demonstration Cities and Metropolitan Development Act of 1966 was signed into law by President Lyndon Johnson. The act, which was aimed at urban renewal, established grants that would pay as much as 80 percent of the cost of developing city demonstration programs and technical assistance from the Department of Housing and Urban Development. The act's Model Cities Program funded the costs of developing and implementing comprehensive plans, as well as providing education, job, recreation, and leadership opportunities for inner-city residents.

Question 82

December 9th, 1966 - Community Development Corporations

Answer 82

Sen. Robert Kennedy, New York City Mayor John Lindsay, and Sen. Jacob Javits established the Bedford Stuyvesant Restoration Corporation, one of the first community development corporations in the United States. CDCs are nonprofit organizations focused on revitalizing a specific community through initiatives such as affordable housing, economic development, and neighborhood planning. Since they are locally focused and community controlled, CDCs theoretically have a better understanding of a community's problems and how to fix them.

Question 83

April 11, 1968 - Fair Housing Act

Answer 83

Title VIII of the Civil Rights Act of 1968, also known as the Fair Housing Act, was signed into law. The act prohibited discrimination against a property renter or buyer on the basis of race, color, religion, or national origin; gender was added in 1974 and disability and familial status in 1988. The act was heavily and contentiously debated in Congress, but President Lyndon Johnson put pressure on legislators to pass it after the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr. Although the Fair Housing Act and other initiatives helped reduce racial segregation by community slightly over the following decades, many studies continue to show heavy segregation even now.

Question 84

August 1, 1968 - HUD Act Passes

Answer 84

he Housing and Urban Development Act of 1968 established Ginnie Mae to provide additional mortgage funding for moderate-income families. The act also allocated $250 million in funding for New Town projects. The towns funded under this initiative were Jonathan, Minnesota; Park Forest South, Illinois; Flower Mound, Texas; and St. Charles, Maryland.

Question 85

1969 - Design with Nature

Answer 85

Ian McHarg, a Scottish landscape architect, published Design With Nature, a landmark work on considering the natural environment when planning. It took the English philosophy of garden design and applied it more broadly to the connection between the human world and the natural world. The book influenced the concepts of environmental impact assessments, coastal zone management, and sustainability, among others.

Question 86

1969 - Establishment of ACSP

Answer 86

The Association of Collegiate Schools of Planning was established, creating a consortium of university departments and programs offering planning degrees and degrees affiliated with planning. The organization started holding its own meetings separately from the American Planning Association in 1981.

Question 87

July 1969 - Ladder of Citizen Participation

Answer 87

The Journal of the American Institute of Planners published "A Ladder of Citizen Participation" by Sherry Arnstein, a seminal article in the field of community engagement. The ladder of citizen participation is a model representing the relationship between government and community, with eight steps ranging from "manipulation" to "citizen control." The steps are placed under three categories: nonparticipation, tokenism, and citizen power. Arnstein's influential paper affected the thinking on power dynamics in decision making, not just in the field of urban planning but on many other fields as well.

Question 88

November 1969 - NBPN Challenges AIP & ASPO

Answer 88

Sixty black students walked out of the National Conference on Urban Planning Education in protest and formed the National Black Planning Network. The group demanded $10 million from the American Institute of Planners and the American Society of Planning Officials for projects aimed at integrating city planning curricula with the realities of black communities. AIP established a task force to work with the NBPN, while ASPO responded to the organization's issues both directly and indirectly through editorials in Planning magazine.