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Hormones and reproductive systems Flashcards

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1
Q

What are endocrine glands?

A

Organs that secrete a hormone into the blood

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2
Q

What are hormones?

A

Chemical messengers

Regulate processes like growth, development, metabolism, homeostasis and reproductive processes

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3
Q

Name three types of hormones.

A

Steroid hormones
Peptide hormones
Amino acid derived hormones

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4
Q

What are some steroid hormones?

A

Testosterone
Oestrogen
Cortisol

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5
Q

What are some peptide hormones?

A

Growth hormone
Oxytocin
Parathyroid hormone

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6
Q

What are some amino acid derived hormones?

A

Thyroid hormones

Catelcholamines

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7
Q

What is the pituitary gland?

A

A small structure at the base of the brain which releases hormones that, in turn, controls the activity of the body’s other hormone glands

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8
Q

What are the 2 hormones released by the posterior pituitary?

A

Oxytocin

Vasopressin (Anti-diuretic hormone, ADH)

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9
Q

What does oxytocin do?

A

Controls milk release from lactating breast

Controls uterine contraction at onset of labour

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10
Q

What does vasopressin/ ADH do?

A

Acts on kidneys to reabsorb water

Regulates blood osmolarity and urine output

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11
Q

Describe the neuro-endocrine reflex that happens with breastfeeding?

A

Suckling -> Hypothalamus -> Posterior pituitary -> Oxytocin -> Milk squeezed out

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12
Q

What are the 6 hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary?

A

1) Growth hormone
2) Prolactin
3) Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
4) Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
5) Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
6) Luteinising hormone (LH)

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13
Q

What do most of the anterior pituitary’s hormones do?

A

Most of which regulate secretions of tropic hormones

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14
Q

What are tropic hormones?

A

Hormones from endocrine organs

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15
Q

What are the principle target organs for FSH and LH?

A

Ovaries and testes

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16
Q

What is the principle target organ for ACTH (Adenocorticotropic hormone)?

A

Adrenal glands

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17
Q

What is the principle target organ for TSH (Thyroid stimulating hormone)?

A

Thyroid gland

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18
Q

What are the principle target organs for growth hormone?

A

Bone
Skeletal muscle
Liver

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19
Q

What are the principle target organs for prolactin?

A

Mammary glands

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20
Q

How can you remember the anterior pituitary hormones?

A

FLAT PeG

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21
Q

What are the 5 cell types in the anterior pituitary?

A 
Somatotrophs
Lactotrophs
Corticotrophs
Gonadotrophs
Thyrotrophs
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22
Q

What hormone is produced by the cell type, somatotrophs?

A

Growth hormone

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23
Q

What hormone is produced by the cell type, lactotrophs?

A

Prolactin

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24
Q

What hormone is produced by the cell type, corticotrophs?

A

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

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25
What hormones are produced by the cell type, gonadotrophs?
``` Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) Luteinising hormone (LH) ```
26
What hormone is produced by the cell type, thyrotrophs?
Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
27
What triggers the release of anterior pituitary hormones?
Hormones from the hypothalamus control release of anterior pituitary hormones
28
Describe growth hormone.
Synthesised and stored in somatotrophs Principle targets: bone and skeletal muscle Stimulates growth in children and adolescents but continues to have important impacts through adult life
29
What are the direct metabolic impacts of GH on muscle, adipose tissue and liver?
Increased muscle mass Decrease in fat deposits Stimulates IGF (insulin-like growth factors) production
30
What causes growth hormone disorders?
Usually result of pituitary tumour secreting growth hormone
31
What is gigantism and what is it caused by?
GH excess Abnormally high linear growth due to excessive action go IGF while epiphyseal growth plates are open (childhood) Normal body proportions because soft tissue is also impacted
32
What is acromegaly and what is it caused by?
GH excess Increased growth hormone later in life after fusion of epiphyses Course facial features, enlarged hands and feet, protruding jaw, separation of teeth, enlarged tongue and thickened lips, deep voice, cardiomegaly and diabetes Usually due to pituitary tumour
33
What is the result of GH insufficiency in adults generally?
No major symptoms
34
What is the result of GH insufficiency in children?
``` Pituitary dwarfism Slow growth rate Normal body proportions Poor muscle development Excess subcutaneous fat ```
35
Describe the thyroid gland.
Discrete organ, adheres to trachea 2 large, asymmetrical flat lobes connected by isthmus Rich blood supply Regulated by hypothalamus and pituitary
36
What is the functional unit of the thyroid gland? How many are there in each gland?
Follicle 1000s in each gland Consists of a layer of follicular cells surrounding a colloid-filled cavity
37
What are the thyroid hormones?
Triiodothyronine (T3) | Thyroxine (T4)
38
Describe the thyroid hormones.
Amino acid derived hormones Tyrosine Iodinated
39
What 2 principle raw materials are required for thyroid hormone synthesis?
Tyrosines: provided by thyroglobulin and secreted by follicular cells into lumen of follicle Iodine: essential requirement, pumped into follicular cells against concentration gradient
40
What is one major advantage of the thyroid hormone system?
Capable of storing many weeks worth of thyroid hormone, coupled to thyroglobulin If no iodine is available, thyroid hormone secretion will be maintained for a while
41
Where are thyroid receptors in the body?
Throughout the body e.g. liver, brain, kidney, hypothalamus and pituitary
42
Does T3 or T4 have a greater biological activity?
T3
43
Where does enzymatic conversion of T4 into T3 occur?
In peripheral tissues (liver and kidneys)
44
What are the principle actions of thyroid hormones?
Metabolism Heat production (calorigenic effect) Growth and development Cardiovascular function
45
How do thyroid hormones impact metabolism?
Increases mobilisation and utilisation of glucose, fat and protein
46
How do thyroid hormones impact heat production?
Important in temperature regulation and adaptation to cold environments
47
How do thyroid hormones impact growth and development?
Essential for normal growth of tissues, including CNS Synergy with growth hormone Deficiencies in thyroid hormone can result in mental impairment and short stature
48
How do thyroid hormones impact cardiovascular function?
Increased cardiac output, heart rate and contractility | Increases ventilation rate
49
How does TSH impact thyroid function?
Stimulates every aspect of thyroid function including: Promoting release of thyroid hormones Increasing activity of iodide pump and iodination of tyrosine -> increases production of thyroid hormones
50
What is hypothyroidism and what does it cause?
Underactive thyroid In general, metabolic rate decreases and weight gain Dry, cold skin, sensitive to cold, impaired memory, mental dullness, lethargy
51
What is hyperthyroidism and what does it cause?
Overactive thyroid In general, metabolic rate increases and weight loss Loss of weight, excessive sweating, intolerance to heat, anxiety, nervousness and exophthalamus
52
How do you diagnose and treat hypothyroidism?
``` Reduced metabolic rate Slow pulse Reduced cardiac output Low plasma levels of 'free' T3 and T4 Thyroxine, dose determine by TSH monitoring ```
53
What are some causes of hypothyroidism?
``` Iodine deficiency (endemic goitre) Autoimmune disease: Hashimoto's thyroiditis ```
54
What is iodine deficiency (endemic goitre)?
Insufficent dietary iodine Insufficient amounts of T3 and T4 Abnormally high TSH Abnormal growth of thyroid due to trophic effects of TSH
55
What is Hashimoto's disease?
``` Most common cause of hypothyroidism Autoimmune disease Antibodies against TSH receptor Prevents TSH binding its receptor Prevents stimulation of hormones Also antibodies against thyroid peroxidase and thyroglobulin Leads to thyroid gland destruction ```
56
What is congenital hypothyroidism?
Lack of gland or incorrect hormone biosynthesis | Mental retardation if treatment later than 3 months
57
What is the clinical exam of hyperthyroidism?
Raised metabolic rate Oxygen consumption Increased heart rate Hypertension
58
How do you treat hyperthyroidism?
Surgical removal of all or part of thyroid Ingestion of radioactive iodine to selectively destroy most active thyroid cells Drugs interfere with gland
59
What autoimmune disease causes hyperthyroidism? What are the characteristics of the disease?
Grave's disease Abnormal antibodies that mimic TSH Activates TSH receptor inducing T3/T4 release Characterised by goitre, exophthalmos and lid retraction, muscle weakness, heart palpitations and irritability
60
What is exophthalmus?
Bulging of the eye anteriorly around the orbit
61
Describe the position and structure of the adrenal glands.
A pair: lie flat on kidneys Each gland enclosed by fibrous capsule surrounded by fat Each gland equivalent to 2 endocrine glands Inner: adrenal medulla Outer: adrenal cortex
62
How does blood flow through the adrenal glands?
Rich blood supply: adrenal arteries arise | Blood flows through cortex and drains into medulla
63
Describe the adrenal medulla. Why is it not a true endocrine gland?
Modified part of sympathetic nervous system | Not a true endocrine gland as not under hormonal control
64
What are the 2 catecholamine hormones secreted by the adrenal medulla?
Adrenaline (epinephrine) | Noradrenaline (norepinephrine)
65
What is the medulla mainly composed of?
Chromaffin cells
66
What are the catelcholamine hormones used for?
Occurs as part of general sympathetic stimulation Fight or flight response Prepares body for acute stress
67
What are the major cardiovascular effects of adrenaline?
Increases heart rate and stroke volume Increase in blood pressure Vasodilation of coronary and skeletal muscle blood vessels Vasocontriction of blood vessels in non-essential tissues Bronchodilation
68
What are the major metabolic effects of adrenaline?
Increases amount of energy for immediate use Liver converts glycogen to glucose Metabolic rate increases Blood flow changes, reducing digestive system activity and urine output
69
What are the 3 morphological distinct zones in the adrenal cortex?
Zona Glomerulosa Zona Fasciculata Zona Reticularis
70
What does the Zona Glomerulosa in the adrenal cortex produce?
Mineralocorticoids like aldosterone
71
What does the Zona Fasciculata in the adrenal cortex produce?
Glucocorticoids like cortisol
72
What does the Zona Reticularis in the adrenal cortex produce?
Gonadocorticoids like androgens
73
What do androgens do in males and females?
Males: role not fully understood, most sex steroids made in gonads Females: Growth of pubic and auxiliary hair, sex drive, important source of androgens
74
What does aldosterone do?
Control extra-cellular fluid volume Conserve body sodium Stimulates reabsorption of sodium in renal distal convoluted tubules in exchange for potassium
75
What regulates aldosterone secretion?
Plasma levels of sodium and potassium via the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
76
What does cortisol do?
Mediates the body's response to stress in response to endocrine signals Stress= physical trauma, intense heat or cold, infection, mental or emotional trauma
77
What increases as a result of cortisol?
``` Increased catabolism (increases skeletal muscle protein catabolism) Increased lipolysis (liberate free fatty acids and triglycerides from adipose tissue= energy source) Increased intake (stimulates appetite) ```
78
What are some other general affects of cortisol?
Anti-inflammatory | Immunosuppressive
79
What controls cortisol release?
CRH: corticotrophin releasing hormone ACTH: adrenocorticotrophic hormone. Maintains structural integrity of adrenal cortex and regulates secretion of glucocorticoid steroid hormones in response to stress
80
Describe Cushing's Syndrome.
Overproduction of cortisol, as a result of adrenal tumour or pituitary tumour Redistribute body fat, muscle wastage, thin skin, bruising abnormal pigmentation, changes in protein metabolism, hyperglycaemia, hypertension
81
What is Addison's disease?
Rare Damage to adrenal glands, autoimmune disease or pituitary damage Deficits in glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids Progressive weakness, lassitude and weight loss Pigmentation of skin and mucosal membranes
82
What are the many roles of calcium?
Structural component of bones and teeth Maintains normal excitability of nerve and muscle cells Impacts neurotransmitter and hormone release Muscle contraction Activation of enzymes Coagulation of blood Milk production
83
What is plasma calcium concentration?
2.2-2.6 mM
84
Why is plasma calcium so tightly regulated?
Too low= neuronal hyperexcitability | Too high= depression and kidney damage/ stones
85
How is plasma calcium regulated?
Hormonal control: balance maintained between ECF and 3 body compartment s Control points were absorption via intestines, excretion via kidney/ urine and temporary storage via bones
86
What form must calcium be in before it can be absorbed?
Soluble and ionised
87
What are the 3 types of bone cells and what do they do?
Osteoblasts: synthesise an secrete collagen and promote deposition of calcium phosphate crystals, secretes factors that activate osteoclasts Osteoclasts: promote resorption of bone Osteocytes: essential role in exchange of calcium between ECF and bone
88
What is plasma calcium concentration determined by?
Net absorption of calcium from gastrointestinal tract Net excretion of calcium in urine Exchange of calcium with bone
89
What 3 hormones control plasma concentration?
Parathyroid hormone 1, 25-dihyrdoxycholecalciferol (calcitriol) Calcitonin
90
Describe parathyroid hormone.
``` Peptide hormone Stored within chief cells Half life= 5 mins Secreted at low rate at all times Released in response to low blood calcium Exerts effect on bone, gut and kidneys ```
91
What does parathyroid hormone do?
Main target tissue: kidney and bone Increase reabsorption of calcium from urine Decrease urinary calcium in minutes Increase expression of enzyme 1alpha-hydroxylase (activates vitamin D) Increase osteoclast activity Increase bone resorption
92
What is vitamin D converted to and where does it come from?
Converted to 1,25 dihydroxycholecalciferol (calcitriol) | Obtained from diet and synthesised in skin in presence of sunlight
93
What does calcitriol do?
Acts on cells in GIT to increase production of calcium transport proteins Increases calcium uptake from GIT Can increase calcium stores Bone: increase rate of bone resorption Kidney: minor effect in decreasing urinary loss of calcium
94
What does calcitonin do?
Secreted by parafollicular cells of thyroid gland Lowers level of free plasma calcium Inhibits osteoclast activity: bone resorption reduced Increase excretion of calcium and phosphate by kidneys
95
What is hyperparathyroidism (hypercalcaemia)?
Inappropriate secretion of PTH, resulting in hypercalcaemia Elevated PTH and raised serum calcium Caused by parathyroid adenoma Bones, stones, abdominal groans and psychic moans
96
What is caused by vitamin D deficiency (hypocalcaemia)?
Bone remodelling impaired Failure of calcification Children= skeletal deformities Adults= softening of bone
97
What causes vitamin D deficiencies?
Poor diet Malabsorption Decreased sunlight Liver of kidney disease
98
What are the primary female reproductive organs and what do they do?
``` Ovaries Produce ova (oogenesis) Secrete female sex hormones ```
99
What is oestrogen needed for?
Ova maturation and release Establishing female secondary sex characteristics Transport of sperm from vagina to fertilisation site Contribute to treat development in anticipation of lactation
100
What is progesterone needed for?
Preparing suitable environment for nourishing a developing embryo/ foetus Contributes to breasts' ability to produce milk
101
What are the 2 alternating phases of the menstrual phase?
Follicular phase: first half of 28 day cycle Maturing follicles that are producing oestrogen Luteal phase: second half of 28 day phase Presence of corpus luteum that produces progesterone and oestrogen
102
What is the corpus luteum and when does it form?
Ruptured follicle form corpus luteum | Releases large amounts of progesterone and oestrogen
103
Describe the process of fertilisation in the body.
Sperm deposited in vagina, travels through cervical canal, uterus ad up to upper 3rd of oviduct Site of fertilisation: oviduct (upper third) Must occur within 24-36 hours of ovulation Sperm usually survive up to 2 days but can survive up to 7 days in female reproductive tract
104
What hormones are involved in lactation?
Elevated placental oestrogen and progesterone promote development of ducts and alveoli in mammary glands Prolactin: stimulate synthesis of enzymes for milk production Oxytocin causes milk ejection Prolactin stimulates milk synthesis to replace milk ejected

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