How effectively did the United States contain the spread of communism? Flashcards
(353 cards)
1
Q
Case Study 1:
A
The Korean War.
2
Q
For how long had Korea been ruled by Japan?
A
Until 1945.
3
Q
How come Japan stopped ruling Korea in 1945?
A
At the end of the second world war the northern half was liberated by Soviet troops and the Souther half, by Americans.
4
Q
What happened to North Korea?
A
It remained communist-controlled, with a communist leader who had been trained in the USSR, and with a Soviet-style one-party system.
5
Q
What happened to South Korea?
A
It was anti-communist. It was not very democratic, but the fact that it was anti-communist was enough to win it the support of the USA.
6
Q
Why did reunification did not seem likely?
A
There was bitter hostility between the North’s communist leader, Kim Il Sung, and Syngam Rhee, president of South Korea.
7
Q
What happened in 1950 to this hostility?
A
It spilled over into open warfare. North Korean troops overwhelmed by the South’s forces. By 1950, all except a small corner of South-east Korea was under communist control.
8
Q
What was president Truman determined to do?
A
To contain communism.
9
Q
What was Korea an example of to Truman?
A
Korea was a glaring example of how communism would spread if the USA did nothing.
10
Q
What did Truman do in relation to Korea?
A
He sent advisers, suppliers and warships to the seas around Korea.
11
Q
What was Truman aware of when intervening in Korean affairs?
A
He was aware that if he was going to take military action it would look better to the rest of the world if he had the support of other countries, especially if he had the support of the United Nations. In fact, the ideal situation would be a UN intervention in the Korean war rather than an American one.
12
Q
What did Truman do in relation to the UN?
A
He put enormous pressure on the UN security council to condemn the actions of the North Koreans and to call on them to withdraw their troops.
13
Q
Why was Truman able to sway the UN?
A
The USA was the biggest single contributor to the UN budget and was therefore in a powerful position to influence its decisions. However, this did not mean that the USA always got its own and it would probably have failed this time except for some unusual circumstances.
14
Q
What usually happened in the UN in 1950 due to the cold war atmosphere?
A
Each superpower always denounces and opposed the other. Normally, in a dispute such as this, the Soviet Union would have used its right of veto to block the call for action by the UN.
15
Q
Why didn’t the USSR use its right of veto?
A
The USSR was boycotting the UN at this time over whether or not communist China should be allowed to join the UN.
16
Q
What was special about this meeting?
A
When the resolution was passed, the USSR was not even at the meeting so could not use its veto. So Truman was able to claim that this was a UN-sponsored operation, even if Soviet newspapers and other media claimed that the decision was not valid.
17
Q
What did the resolution say?
A
Under the resolution, the UN committed itself to using its members’ armies to drive North Korean troops out of South Korea.
18
Q
How was support of this resolution shown?
A
Eighteen states provided troops or support of some kind. These were mostly allies of the USA and included Britain. However, by far the largest part of the UN force was American. The commander, General MacArthur, was also American.
19
Q
How did the UN force advance in September 1950?
A
The United Nations forces stormed ashore at Inchon in September 1950. At the same time, the other UN forces and South Korean troops advanced from Pusan. The North Koreans were driven back beyond their original border within weeks.
20
Q
What was the name of the original North Korean border?
A
The 38th parallel.
21
Q
What were MacArthur (USA’s) intentions with Korea in 1950?
A
MacArthur had quickly achieved the original UN aim of removing North Korean troops from South Korea. But the Americans did not stop. Despite warnings from Chinas leader, Mao Tse-Tsung, that if they pressed on China would join the war, the UN approved a plan to advance into North Korea.
22
Q
What happened in October 1950?
A
By October, US forces had reached the Yalu river and the border with China. The nature of the war had now changed. It was clear that MacArthur and Truman were after a bigger prize, one which went beyond containment. As the UN forces advanced and secured their positions, Truman and MacArthur saw an opportunity to remove communism from Korea entirely. Even Mao’s warnings were not going to put them off.
23
Q
What happened in November 1950?
A
MacArthur underestimated the power of the Chinese. Late in October 1950, 200,000 Chinese troops (calling themselves ‘People’s Volunteers) joined the North Koreans. They launched a blistering attack. They had soldiers who were strongly committed to communism and had been taught by their leader to hate the Americans. They had modern tanks and planes supplied by the Soviet Union. The United Nations forces were pushed back into South Korea.
24
Q
Why was this the outcome?
A
Conditions were some of the worst the American forces had known, with treacherous cold and blinding snowstorms in the winter of 1950-51. The Chinese forces were more familiar with fighting in the jagged mountains, forested ravines and treacherous swamps - as the landscape was similar to many areas of China.
25
What happened between Truman and MacArthur?
At this point, Truman and MacArthur fell out. MacArthur wanted to carry on the war. He was ready to invade China and even use nuclear weapons if necessary.
Truman, on the other hand, felt that saving South Korea was good enough.
Communism had been contained. The risks of starting a war that might bring in the USSR were too great, and so an attack on China was ruled out.
26
What happened in March 1951?
However, in March 1951 MacArthur blatantly ignored the UN instruction and openly threatened an attack on China. In April Truman removed MacArthur from his position as commander and brought him back home. He rejected MacArthur's aggressive policy towards communism. Containment was underlined as the American policy. One of the American army leaders, General Omar Bradley, said that MacArthur's approach would have 'involved America in the wrong war, in the wrong place, at the wrong time, and with the wrong enemy. Truman agreed with Bradley and was effectively returning to the policy of containment and accepting that he could not drive the communists out of North Korea.
27
What happened in June 1951?
Peace talks began.
28
Why did peace talks begin?
The fighting finally reached stalemate around the 38th parallel in the middle of 1951. Peace talks between North and South Korea began in June 1951, although bitter fighting continued for two more years.
29
What happened in July 1953?
Armistice.
30
What happened in relation to world leaders in July 1953?
In 1952 Truman was replaced by President Eisenhower, who wanted to end the war. Stalin's death in March 1953 made the Chinese and North Koreans less confident. An ARMISTICE was finally signed in July 1953. The border between North and South Korea was much the same as it had been before war started in 1950.
31
What is armistice?
End to fighting.
32
What were the consequences of the Korean war?
There were 1.4 million casualties.
33
How many North Korean and Chinese soldiers and civilians were killed?
780,000
34
How many South Korean civilians were killed?
500,000
35
How many South Korean soldiers were killed?
70,000
36
How many American soldiers were killed?
30,000
37
How many other UN soldiers were killed?
4,500
38
What shows that the Korean war was a success for containment?
In one sense the Korean war was a success for the USA.
- The cost and the casualties were high but it showed that the USA had the will and the means to contain communism. - South Korea remained out of communist hands.
39
What shows that the Korean war was a failure of containment?
It showed the limits of the policy.
- The USA had to accept that North Korea remained communist.
- It also highlighted tensions among American leaders. Hardline anti-communist politicians and military leaders wanted to go beyond containment - to push back communism.
- They thought that Truman had shown weakness in not going for outright victory. More moderate politicians and commanders argued that this would not be worth the risk.
40
What did the Korean war show America?
That they couldn't just send their soldiers to fight a war whenever they saw a problem. It was too expensive and it didn't work very well. Instead, American policy focused on two other methods of containment.
41
What were the methods of containment?
- Alliances with anti-communist countries.
- Building more powerful nuclear weapons.
42
What were the alliances created by the USA?
The USA created a network of anticommunist alliances around the world: SEATO in South East Asia and CENTO in Central Asia and the Middle East. The USA gave money, advice and arms to these allies. In return, the leaders of these countries suppressed communist influence in their own countries.
43
What did the USSR think about these alliances?
The USSR saw these alliances as aggressive. They accused the USA of trying to encircle the communist world. In 1955 the Soviet Union set up the Warsaw Treaty Organisation, better known as the WARSAW PAcT. This included the USSR and all the communist east European countries except Yugoslavia.
44
What had the USA done in 1945?
They had developed their first atomic bomb.
45
What did the USA do upon having developed this new weapon?
They did not share the secret of their bomb with the USSR, even while they were still allies. When the USA dropped the first bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, 70,000 people were killed instantly. The awesome power of the explosions and the incredible destruction caused by the bombs made Japan surrender within a week. It was clear to the USA that atomic bombs were the weapons of the future. Just threatening to use such weapons could help contain communism.
46
What effect did this have on the USSR?
The same was clear to the USSR! The result was an ARMS RACE to build ever more powerful weapons and to place them where they could best threaten your enemy.
This was to prove a key factor in our next case study: the Cuban Missile Crisis.
47
What is the dictionary definition of the Cold War?
The conflict that ran from 1946 - 1989 between the USA and the USSR and their various allies. They never fought each other but used propaganda, spying and similar methods against each other. Also sponsored other countries in regional wars.
48
Case study 2:
The Cuban Missile crisis.
49
What were the origins of the Cuban Missile crisis?
- The arms race and nuclear deterrence.
- The Cuban revolution.
- Enter Fidel Castro.
- The USA responds.
- 'The Bay of Pigs' invasion.
- The impact of the invasion.
50
For how long did the arms race last?
Through the 1960s the USA and the USSR were locked in a nuclear arms race.
51
What did both sides do during the arms race?
Each side developed ever bigger, more deadly and more flexible weapons. They both spent vast amounts of money on new weapons.
52
How did the USSR spy on the other side (USA) to steal technological secrets?
The USSR tended to use spies.
53
How did the USA spy on the other side (USSR) to steal technological secrets?
The USA favoured hi-tech spying such as the U2 plane - a plane which flew so high it couldn't not be shot down but took incredibly detailed photos of the ground.
54
What did each side do in terms of nuclear bombs?
Each side perfected nuclear bombs that could be launched from submarines or planes. Both sides developed ICBM's, which could travel from continent to continent in half an hour.
55
What did the USA do with their nuclear weapons?
The USA placed short-range nuclear weapons in Turkey (one of their CENTO allies).
56
What happened by the end of 1960?
Both sides has enough nuclear weapons to destroy the other side.
57
Who had more more nuclear weapons?
The USA had more than the USSR.
58
Was having more nuclear weapons very advantageous for the USA?
The advantage did not really matter because both sides had enough to destroy each other many times over.
59
Why did both sides continue making weapons then?
On each side the theory was that such weapons made them more secure.
60
What was this ideology built upon?
The fact that it was a nuclear deterrent.
61
What did the nuclear deterrent mean?
The nuclear deterrent meant the enemy would not dare attack first, because it knew that, if it did, the other would strike back before it's bombs had even landed and it too would be destroyed.
62
What did this policy of being scared of the nuclear deterrent mean?
This policy also became known as MAD (Mutually Assured Destruction).
63
How did the policy of MAD make sense?
Surely no side would dare strike first when it knew the attack would destroy itself too.
64
Where is Cuba?
Cuba is a large island just 160km from Florida in Southern USA.
65
Was Cuba an ally of America?
It had long been an American ally.
66
How were Cuba and America correlated?
Americans owned most of the businesses on the island and they had a huge naval base there.
67
Whats a diagram of America's naval base in Cuba?
68
Who was the Cuban ruler?
General Batista.
69
What did America do in terms of General Batista?
The Americans provided him with economic and military support.
70
What kind of ruler was Batista?
He was a dictator.
71
Was General Batista popular?
His rule was corrupt and unpopular.
72
Since General Batista was unpopular, why did America support him?
The Americans supported Batista primarily because he was just as opposed to communism as they were.
73
Was Batista just unpopular in Cuba?
No, there was plenty of opposition to Batista in Cuba itself.
74
What did Cubans do to get rid of General Batista?
After a three year campaign, Fidel Castro overthrew Batista.
75
What year did Castro overthrow Batista?
In 1959.
76
What were the characteristics that Fidel Castro possessed?
Castro was charming, clever, and also ruthless.
77
Why was Fidel Castro referred to as rutheless?
He quickly killed, arrested or exiled many political opponents.
78
In the end, why did Castro win?
He was very charismatic and had a better vision for Cuba, which won over the majority of Cubans.
79
Did the USA expect Castro to come to power?
No, they were taken by surprise at first and decided to recognise Castro as the new leader of Cuba.
80
What were the relations like between Castro and the USA?
Within a short period of time, relations between the two countries grew worse.
81
What were the two reasons as to why the relations between the two countries become worse?
- There were thousands of Cuban exiles in the USA who had fled from Castro's rule. They formed powerful pressure groups demanding action against Castro.
- Castro took over some American-owned businesses in Cuba, particularly agricultural businesses. He took their land and distributed it to his supporters among Cuba's peasant farmer population.
82
How did the USA respond to Castro's uprise?
As early as June 1960, US president Eisenhower authorized the US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to investigate ways of overthrowing Castro.
83
What did the CIA do in terms of Cuban exiles?
The CIA provided support and funds to Cuban exiles.
84
What else did the CIA do?
It also investigated ways to disrupt the Cuban economy, such as damaging sugar plantations.
85
What did the American businesses in Cuba do?
American companies working in Cuba refused to co-operate with any Cuban businesses that used oil or other materials which had been imported from the USSR.
86
How did America publicly show their disagreement with Fidel Castro's uprise?
The American media also broadcast a relentless stream of criticism of Castro and his regime.
87
How did Castro respond to the USA's hostility?
With a mixed approach.
88
What is the one side in which Castro responded to the USA's hostility?
He assured Americans living in Cuba that they were safe and he allowed the USA to keep its naval base. He said he simply wanted to run Cuba without interference.
89
What is the other side in which Castro responded to the USA's hostility?
However, by the summer of 1960 he had allied Cuba with the Soviet Union.
90
How did this alliance of 1960 show?
Soviet leader Khrushchev signed a trade agreement giving Cuba $100 million in economic aid. Castro also began receiving arms from the Soviet Union.
91
Were Americans aware of this?
American spies knew this.
92
What happened in January 1961?
The USA's new president, John F Kennedy, broke off diplomatic relations with cuba.
93
What are diplomatic relations?
How countries discuss issues with each other. Breaking off diplomatic relations can sometimes be a first step towards war.
94
What impression did Castro have of the USA after they broke off diplomatic relations?
Castro thought that the USA was preparing to invade his country.
95
Was Castro right?
He was right.
96
Why did Kennedy no longer want to have diplomatic relations with Cuba?
Kennedy was no longer prepared to tolerate a Soviet satellite in the USA's 'sphere of influence'.
97
Did Kennedy then go and invade directly?
No.
98
What did Kennedy do instead of a direct invasion?
Instead President Kennedy put into action a plan that had been devised under Eisenhower.
99
What did Kennedy (The USA) do in this plan?
He supplied arms, equipment and transport for 1400 anti-Castro exiles to invade cuba intending to overthrow castro.
100
What happened in April 1961?
The exiles landed at the Bay Of Pigs.
101
Who were the Cuban exiles funded and trained by in the Bay Of Pigs invasion?
Cuban exiles were funded and trained by the CIA and supported by US air power.
102
Who had come up with the Bay Of Pigs invasion?
The plan was originally devised by president Eisenhower's government but Kennedy approved it when he became president. Training began in April 1960. The invasion took place on April 17 1961.
103
Was the arrival of the exiles a surprise to the Cubans?
Cuban security services knew that the invasion was coming.
104
What was a large misconception held by the US intelligence, proving the Bay Of Pigs invasion to be a massive failure?
The invasion was a complete failure. US intelligence, which states that Cuban people would rebel against Castro, proved to be wrong.
105
What were the three main reasons for the failure of the Bay Of Pigs invasion, as identified by extensive investigations?
- Lack of secrecy so that USA could not deny its involvement.
- Poor links between various US departments.
- Failure to organise resistance inside Cuba.
- Insufficient Spanish-speaking staff.
106
Was the invasion a success?
The invasion failed disastrously.
107
What resistance did the exiles meet upon their arrival?
They were met by 20,000 Cuban troops, armed with tanks and modern weapons. Castro captured or killed them all within days.
108
What impact did the invasion have on Cuba and the Soviet Union?
The half-hearted invasion suggested to Cuba and the Soviet Union that, despite its opposition to communism in Cuba, the USA was unwilling to get directly involved in Cuba.
109
What did Khrushchev think of the USA after the Bay Of Pigs invasion?
The Soviet leader Khrushchev was scornful of Kennedy's pathetic attempt t oust communism for Cuba.
110
What is believed about the Bay Of Pigs invasion in terms of strength?
Historians argue that the Bay Of Pigs invasion further strengthened Castro's position in Cuba. It suggested to the USSR that Kennedy was weak. It also made Castro and Khrushchev very suspicious of US policy.
111
What are the characteristics of the October crisis?
- Khrushchev arms Castro.
- The US discovers nuclear sites.
112
What happens after the Bay Of Pigs invasion?
Soviet arms flooded into Cuba.
113
What happened in May 1962?
The Soviet union announced publicly for the first time that it was supplying Cuba with arms.
114
What had happened by July 1962?
By July 1962, Cuba had the best-equipped army in Latin America.
115
From July and onwards how did Cuba continue to grow in terms of their military?
By September it had thousands of Soviet missiles, plus patrol boats, tanks, radar vans, missile erectors, jet bombers, jet fighters, and 5000 Soviet technicians to help maintain the weapons.
116
How did Americans feel about this?
The Americans watched all this with great alarm.
117
What were the USA ok with?
They seemed ready to tolerate conventional arms being supplied to Cuba.
118
What were the USA worried about?
But the big question was whether the Soviet Union would dare to put nuclear missiles on Cuba.
119
Did Kennedy believe that the Soviet Union would put nuclear weapons in Cuba?
In September Kennedy's own Intelligence Department said that it did not believe the USSR would send nuclear weapons to Cuba.
120
Why did Kennedy believe that the Soviet Union wouldn't put nuclear weapons in Cuba?
The USSR had not taken this step with any of its satellite states before and the US Intelligence Department believed that the USSR would consider it too risky to do it in Cuba.
121
What are the satellite states?
State that is controlled by a larger state, e.g Eastern European states controlled by the USSR after the Second World War.
122
What did Kennedy do on the 11 September?
Kennedy warned the USSR that he would prevent 'by whatever means might be necessary' Cuba becoming an offensive military base - by which, everyone knew, he meant a base for nuclear missiles.
123
What did the USSR do in response to Kennedy's statement from 11 September?
The same day the USSR assured the USA that it had no need to put nuclear missiles on Cuba and no intention of doing so.
124
What happened on Sunday 14 October 1962?
An American spy plane flew over Cuba.
125
What did this spy plane do?
It took amazingly detailed photographs of missile sites in Cuba.
126
Why was this shocking?
Despite the USSRS reassurances that they did not intend to provide nuclear missiles to Cuba, they were found by American spy planes.
127
What were the two obvious things to military experts?
- These were nuclear missile sites.
- They were being built by the USSR.
128
What happens over the next two days?
More photo reconnaissance followed over the next two days.
129
What did these photos prove?
This confirmed that some sites wee nearly finished but others were still being built.
130
Did all the sites have missiles?
Some were already supplied with missiles, others were awaiting them.
131
Were there any ready missile sites?
No, but the experts said that the most developed of the sites could be ready to launch missiles in just seven days.
132
What else did American spy planes observe?
American spy planes also reported that twenty Soviet ships were currently on the way to Cuba carrying missiles.
133
What is an image of the map which shows the location of Cuba and the range of the Cuban missiles?
134
What happened on Tuesday 16 1962?
President Kennedy was informed of the missile build-up. Ex Comm formed.
135
What happened on Saturday 20 1962?
Kennedy decided on a blockade of Cuba.
136
What happened on Monday 22 October 1962?
Kennedy announced the blockade and called on the Soviet Union to withdraw its missiles.
137
What happened on Tuesday 23 October 1962?
Kennedy received a letter from Khrushchev saying that Soviet ships would not observe the blockade. Khrushchev did not admit the presence of nuclear missiles on Cuba.
138
What happened on Wednesday 24 October 1962?
The blockade began. The first missile-carrying ships, accompanied by a Soviet submarine, approached the 500-mile (800-km) blockade zone. Then suddenly, at 10.32 a.m., the twenty Soviet ships which were closest to the zone stopped or turned around.
139
What happened on Thursday 25 October 1962?
Despite the Soviet ships turning around, intensive aerial photography revealed that work on the missile bases in Cuba was proceeding rapidly.
140
What happened on Friday 26 October 1962?
Kennedy received a long personal letter from Khrushchev. The letter claimed that the missiles on Cuba were purely defensive, but went on: 'If assurances were given that the USA would not participate in an attack on Cuba and the blockade was lifted, then the question of the removal or the destruction of the missile sites would be an entirely different question'. This was the first time Khrushchev had admitted the presence of the missiles.
141
What happened on Saturday 27 October 1962 in the morning?
- Khrushchev sent a second letter - revising his proposals - saying that the condition for removing the missiles from Cuba was that the USA withdraw its missiles from Turkey.
- An American U-2 plane was shot down over Cuba. The pilot was killed.
The President was advised to launch an immediate reprisal attack on Cuba.
142
What happened on Saturday 27 October 1962 in the afternoon?
Kennedy decided to delay an attack. He also decided to ignore the second Khrushchev letter, but accepted the terms suggested by Khrushchev on 26 October. He said that if the Soviet Union did not withdraw, an attack would follow.
143
What happened on Sunday 28 October 1962?
Khrushchev replied to Kennedy: 'In order to eliminate as rapidly as possible the conflict which endangers the cause of peace ... the Soviet Government has given a new order to dismantle the arms which you described as offensive and to crate and return them to the Soviet Union.'
144
What kind of strategy was it for the Soviet union to place nuclear missiles on Cuba?
It was an incredibly risky strategy.
145
Why was it so risky?
The USSR had supplied many of its allies with CONVENTIONAL WEAPONS but this was the first time that any Soviet leader had placed nuclear weapons outside Soviet territory.
146
Why did the Soviet Union place nuclear missiles on Cuba?
- To bargain with the USA.
- To test the USA.
- To trap the USA.
- To close the missile gap.
- To defend Cuba.
- To strengthen his own position in the USSR.
147
Why did Khrushchev want to bargain with the USA?
If Khrushchev had missiles on Cuba, he could agree to remove them in return for some American concessions.
148
Why did Khrushchev want to test with the USA?
In the strained atmosphere of Cold War politics the missiles were designed to see how strong the Americans really were - whether they would back off or face up.
149
Why did Khrushchev want to trap the USA?
Khrushchev wanted the Americans to find them and be drawn into a nuclear war. He did not even try to hide them.
150
Why did Khrushchev want to close the missile gap?
Khrushchev was so concerned about the missile gap between the USSR and the USA that he would seize any opportunity he could to close it. With missiles on Cuba it was less likely that the USA would ever launch a 'first strike' against the USSR.
151
Why did Khrushchev want to defend Cuba?
Cuba was the only communist state in the Western Hemisphere, and it had willingly become communist rather than having become communist as a result of invasion by the USSR. In addition, Cuba was in 'Uncle Sam's backyard'. As Castro himself put it: 'The imperialist cannot forgive that we have made a socialist revolution under the nose of the United States! Just by existing, Castro's Cuba was excellent propaganda for the USSR.
152
Why did Khrushchev want to strengthen his own position in the USSR?
The superiority of the USA in nuclear missiles undermined Khrushchev's credibility inside the USSR. His critics pointed out that he was the one who had urged the USSR to rely on nuclear missiles. Now, could he show that the USSR really was a nuclear power?
153
What were the outcomes of the Cuban missile crisis for Kennedy and the USA?
- Kennedy came out of the crisis with a greatly improved reputation in his own country and throughout the West. He had stood up to Khrushchev and made him back down.
- Kennedy had also resisted the hardliners in his own Government. They had wanted the USA to invade Cuba - to turn back communism. However, the crisis highlighted the weakness of their case. Such intervention was not worth the high risk.
- On the other hand, he did secretly agree to remove the missiles from Turkey. This was awkward for him as the decision to remove them should have been a decision for NATO.
His NATO allies were unhappy that Kennedy had traded them during the crisis but accepted this was better than a nuclear war.
- Kennedy also had to accept that Castro's Cuba would remain a communist state in America's backyard.
154
What were the outcomes of the Cuban missile crisis for Khrushchev and the USSR?
- In public Khrushchev was able to highlight his role as a responsible peacemaker, willing to make the first move towards compromise.
- There was no question that keeping Cuba safe from American attack was a major achievement for the USSR. Cuba was a valuable ally and proved a useful base from which to support communists in South America.
- Khrushchev did also get the USA to withdraw its nuclear missiles from Turkey. However, Khrushchev promised to keep this secret so he was unable to use it for propaganda purposes.
- The USA was criticised by some of its own allies. Newspaper articles in Britain, for example, commented that the USA was unreasonable to have missiles in Turkey and yet object to Soviet missiles in Cuba.
- On the other hand, Khrushchev had been forced to back down and remove the missiles. Soviet military leaders were particularly upset at the terms of the withdrawal. They were forced to put missiles on the decks of their ships so the Americans could count them. They felt this was a humiliation.
- The USSR still lagged behind the USA in the arms race. The USSR developed its stockpile of ICBMs at a huge financial cost, but it never caught up with the USA.
- In 1964 Khrushchev himself was forced from power by his enemies inside the USSR. Many commentators believe that the Cuban Missile Crisis contributed to this.
155
What were the outcomes of the Cuban missile crisis for the cold war?
- The crisis helped thaw Cold War relations between the USA and the USSR. Both leaders had seen how their brinkmanship had nearly ended in nuclear war. They were now more prepared to take steps to reduce the risk of nuclear war. For example:
* A permanent 'hot line' phone link was set up direct from the White House to the Kremlin.
* In 1963, they signed a Nuclear Test Ban Treaty. It did not stop the development of weapons, but it limited tests and was an important step forward.
- Although it was clear the USSR could not match US technology or numbers of weapons, it was also clear this was not necessary. The Soviet nuclear arsenal was enough of a threat to make the USA respect the USSR. It is significant that for the rest of the Cold War the superpowers avoided direct confrontation and fought through their allies where possible.
156
What were the outcomes of the Cuban missile crisis for Castro's Cuba?
- Castro was very upset by Khrushchev's deal with America but he had to accept it. He needed the support of the USSR.
- Cuba stayed communist and highly armed. The nuclear missiles were removed but Cuba remained an important base for communist operations in South America and for a civil war in Angola in the 1970s.
- Castro kept control of the American companies and economic resources he nationalised during his revolution.
157
Case study 3:
The Vietnam War.
158
What happened although Americans were relieved at the outcome of the Cuban crisis?
It did not reduce their fear of communism.
159
What happened after the Cuban crisis?
Very soon they found themselves locked in a costly war in Vietnam, which put a massive question mark over the very policy of containment.
160
What were origins of the Vietnam war?
- Fighting the Japanese.
- Fighting the French.
- The USA responds.
- Financial support for Diem's regime.
- The emergence of the Viet Cong.
- US involvement escalates.
161
What was Vietnam known as before the Second World War?
Indochina.
162
Who was Indochina ruled by?
France.
163
What happened during the second world war?
The region was conquered by the Japanese.
164
How did the Japanese treat the Vietnamese people?
They treated the Vietnamese people savagely.
165
What happened as a result of the mistreatment by the Japanese towards the Vietnamese?
A strong anti-Japanese resistance movement emerged.
166
What was the anti-Japanese resistance movement called?
The Viet Minh.
167
Who did this movement emerge under?
The leadership of communist Ho Chi Minh.
168
What did Ho do?
He inspired the Vietnamese people to fight the Japanese.
169
What happened when the second world war ended?
The Viet Minh entered the northern city of Hanoi in 1945.
170
What did the Viet Minh do in Hanoi after entering in 1945?
They declared Vietnam independent.
171
How did the French respond to this in 1945?
In 1945 they came back wanting to rule Vietnam again, but Ho was not prepared to let this happen.
172
What happened as a result of Ho not letting the French rule Vietnam?
Another nine years of war followed between the Viet Minh.
173
Which part of Vietnam did the Viet Minh control during this time?
The North of the country.
174
Which part of Vietnam did the French control during this time?
The South of the country.
175
What political stance did China have in 1949 and who did they support?
Communist, and from 1949 Ho was supported by China.
176
Who did the USA give their support to in the cold war?
The USA responded during the cold war by helping those who opposed the communists
177
What did the USA do in terms of French?
It poured $500 million a year into the French war effort.
178
What was shocking about the French and Vietnam?
Despite the USA's support, the French were unable to hold on to the country and pulled out of Vietnam in 1954.
179
How was North and South Vietnam divided?
A peace conference was held in Geneva and the country was divided into North and South Vietnam until elections could be held to decide its future.
180
What were the conditions of the elections, under the terms of the ceasefire?
Elections were to be held within two years to reunite the country.
181
What was weird in terms of the USA and the Vietnamese elections in 1954?
It prevented the elections from taking place.
182
Why was this prevention shocking?
The USA previously criticised Stalin for not holding free elections in Soviet-controlled eastern Europe after the war, and in Vietnam the USA applied a different rule.
183
Why did the Americans prevent the elections from taking place?
Their policy was a strange combination of determination and ignorance. President Eisenhower and his Secretary of State JF Dulles were convinced that China and the USSR were planning to spread communism throughout Asia.
184
What was this idea referred to as?
The Domino theory.
185
Under the Domino theory, what would happen if Vietnam fell to communism?
Then Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Burma and possible even India might also fall - just like a row of dominoes.
186
What were the Americans determined to do in terms of communism?
The Americans were determined to resist the spread of communism in Vietnam, which they saw as the first domino in the row.
187
What showed the Americans ignorance?
Their methods and policies showed their ignorance of the Vietnamese people and the region.
188
What did the Americans do in 1955?
In 1955 the Americans helped Ngo Dinh Diem to set up the Republic of South Vietnam.
189
Why did the Americans support Ngo Dinh Diem?
They supported him because he was bitterly anticommunist.
190
Was Diem liked by the Vietnamese people?
Diem's regime was very unpopular with the Vietnamese people.
191
What were three reasons as to why Diem's regime was unpopular with the Vietnamese people?
- He belonged to the landlord class, which treated the Vietnamese peasants with contempt.
- He was a Christian and showed little respect for the Buddhist religion of most Vietnamese peasants.
- Diem's regime was also extremely corrupt.
192
What were the American's stance towards these reasons?
The Americans were concerned and frustrated by his actions.
193
Why didn't the Americans do anything then?
Dulles said, 'We knew of no one better'.
194
How did America support Diem's regime?
The USA supported Diem's regime with around $1.6 billion in the 1950s.
195
What happened to Diem in 1963?
Diem was overthrown by his own army leaders in November 1963, but the governments that followed were equally corrupt.
196
Did the American's care that the governments that followed were equally corrupt?
No, they also received massive US support.
197
What did the actions of these anticommunist governments do?
There was increased support among the ordinary peasants for the communist-led National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam, which was set up in December 1960.
198
What was this movement called?
The Viet Cong.
199
What was the Viet Cong?
It was an underground army fighting against French rule in the 1950's and then government of South Vietnam and its US allies in Vietnam war.
200
Who did the Viet Cong include?
It included South Vietnamese opponents of the Government, but also large numbers of communist North Vietnamese taking their orders from Ho Chi Minh.
201
What happened to peasants who did not support the Viet Cong?
They faced intimidation and violence from them.
202
What did the Viet Cong do against the South Vietnamese?
The Viet Cong started a guerrilla war against the South Vietnamese Government.
203
How did the Viet cong start this war against the South Vietnamese government?
Using the Ho Chi Min trail, the Viet Cong sent reinforcements and ferried supplies to guerrilla fighters.
204
What is an image that shows Vietnam in the mid 1960's and the Ho Chi Min trail?
205
What did these guerilla fighters do?
These fighters attacked South Vietnamese Government forces, officials and buildings. They also attacked American air force and supply bases.
206
What is guerilla warfare?
Type of warfare which avoids large-scale battles and relies on hit-and-run raids.
207
What did the South Vietnamese government do in response?
They launched their 'strategic hamlet' programme.
208
What was this 'strategic hamlet' programme?
This involved moving peasant villages from Viet Cong-controlled areas to areas controlled by the South Vietnamese Government.
209
How did the Americans help the South Vietnamese?
The Americans helped by supplying building materials, money, food and equipment for the villagers to build improved farms and houses.
210
Did this policy work?
No, it backfired.
211
Why did this policy backfire?
This is because the peasants resented it - and corrupt officials pocketed money meant to buy supplies for the villagers.
212
What happened by 1962?
President Kennedy was sending military personnel to help the South Vietnamese army fight the Viet Cong.
213
What was Kennedy wary about, that he publicly admitted to?
Kennedy said he was determined that the USA would not 'blunder into war, unclear about aims or how to get out again'.
214
What was Kennedy referring to?
He was a keen historian himself and had studied the USA's past successes and failures. He was well aware from the Korean War ten years earlier what could and could not be achieved by military intervention.
215
What happened to Kennedy in 1963?
He was assassinated.
216
Who was his successor?
Lyndon Johnson.
217
What was Lyndon Johnson's approach to the conflict in Vietnam?
He was more prepared than Kennedy to commit the USA to a full-scale conflict in Vietnam to prevent the spread of communism.
218
What happened in August 1964?
North Vietnamese patrol boats opened fire on US shops in the Gulf of Tonkin.
219
How did the US react to this open fire?
The US congress passed the Tonkin Gulf resolution.
220
What did the Tonkin Gulf resolution do?
It gave the president power to 'take all necessary measures to prevent further aggression and achieve peace and security'.
221
In other words, what did this resolution mean that Johnson could do?
It effectively meant that Johnson could take the USA into a full-scale war if he felt it was necessary, and very soon he did.
222
What happened in February 1965?
The US started operation rolling thunder.
223
What was operation rolling thunder?
A gigantic bombing campaign against North Vietnamese cities, factories, army bases and the Ho Chi Min trail, which continued for three years.
224
What happened on March 8 1965?
3500 US marines, combat troops rather than advisors came ashore at Da Nang.
225
After these events, what did this mean?
The USA was now officially at war in Vietnam.
226
What is an image of a graph showing escalating US involvement in Vietnam from 1960-1974?
227
How did the president and his advisors explain why they sent troops to Vietnam?
It was because of the policy of containment and the 'domino theory'.
228
What is the more controversial view held by historians about the USA's reasoning?
That powerful groups within the USA wanted a war.
229
What did Eisenhower do in 1961?
President Eisenhower himself warned that America had developed a powerful 'military-industrial complex'.
230
What did the government do in terms of the military?
The government gave huge budgets to the military commanders.
231
What were these budgets spent on?
Weapons made by some of America's biggest companies.
232
Who benefited from this conflict then?
Both the armed forces and businesses actually gained from conflict.
233
What did Eisenhower say in his last speech?
He warned the American people not to let these groups become too influential.
234
What can we say about the Americans decision to get fully involved in the war with hindsight involved?
That it was a huge gamble.
235
What did political leaders make their decisions based on?
On what they knew and believed at the time.
236
What did they know and believe at the time?
They knew that their technology and firepower was superior to the Viet Cong and they believed that would allow them to win the war.
237
What happened to these beliefs and knowledge?
They were soon proven wrong.
238
Why were the Americans proven wrong?
As time went on it became clear that the USA needed more than money and technology to win this kind of war.
239
What was the Viet Cong in early 1965?
They had about 170,000 soldiers. They were heavily outnumbered and outgunned.
240
What did the Viet Cong believe about warfare?
They were no match for the US and South Vietnamese forces in open warfare.
241
What event showed that there was not a level playing field between the Viet Cong and the US?
In November 1965 in the La Dreng Valley, US forces killed 2000 Viet Cong for the loss of 300 troops. However this did not daut Ho Chi Minh.
242
What were the Viet Cong's tactics and troops?
- Guerilla warfare.
- Civillians.
- Supplies.
- Commitment.
243
What was Guerilla warfare?
Ho used Guerilla warfare. Guerrilla is a Spanish word which literally means 'little war'. Guerrilla warfare meant avoiding big battles and using hit-and-run raids. Guerrillas did not wear uniform. They were hard to tell apart from the peasants in the villages. They had no known base camp or headquarters. They worked in small groups. They attacked then disappeared into the jungle, into the villages or into tunnels.
244
What were the aims of these Guerilla attacks?
They were aimed to wear down enemy soldiers and wreck their morale. US soldiers lived in constant fear of ambushes or booby traps such as pits filled with sharpened bamboo stakes.
245
Were these Guerilla attacks successful?
11 per cent of US casualties were caused by booby traps. Another 51 per cent were from ambushes or hand-to-hand combat. The Viet Cong favoured close-quarter fighting because it knew that the Americans would not use their air power for fear of hitting their own troops.
246
How did Ho use civilians?
Ho knew how important it was to keep the population on his side. The Viet Cong fighters were courteous and respectful to the Vietnamese peasants. They helped them in their fields during busy periods.
247
What were the Viet Cong prepared to do though?
However, they were quite prepared to kill peasants who opposed them or who co-operated with their enemies. They also conducted a campaign of terror against the police, tax collectors, teachers and any other employees of the South Vietnamese Government.
248
Was this use of civilians successful?
Between 1966 and 1971 the Viet Cong killed an estimated 27,000 civilians.
249
How did Ho Chi Minh use supplies?
The Viet Cong depended on supplies from North Vietnam that came along the Ho Chi Minh Trail. US and South Vietnamese planes bombed this constantly, but 40,000 Vietnamese worked to keep it open whatever the cost.
250
What was rumoured to be the total number of Viet Cong and North Vietnamese dead?
The total of Viet Cong and North Vietnamese dead in the war has been estimated at 1 million - far higher than US losses.
251
Did ho chi Minh get discouraged by this?
No, he showed commitment.
252
How did he show commitment?
Whatever the casualties, there were replacement troops available. The greatest strength of the Viet Cong fighters was that they simply refused to give in.
253
What were the US tactics and troops?
- Bombing.
- Search and destroy.
- Chemical weapons.
- Conscription and morale.
254
What was the main tactic of the USA?
Bombing.
255
What did the USA do with this bombing?
For seven years from 1965-72 the USA bombed military, industrial and civilian targets in North Vietnam; they bombed the Ho Chi Minh Trail; they bombed Vietnam's neighbours Laos and Cambodia (who were sympathetic to the Viet Cong).
256
Was this bombing effective?
To some extent bombing worked. It damaged North Vietnam's war effort and it disrupted supply routes. From 1970 to 1972, intense bombing of North Vietnam forced it to negotiate for peace. However, air power could not defeat the communists.
257
What showed that air power could not defeat the communists?
Even after major air raids on North Vietnam in 1972, the communists were still able to launch a major assault on the South.
258
What turned the Vietnamese people agains the Americans?
Even more important, civilian casualties helped turn the Vietnamese people against the Americans.
259
Why did search and destroy come about?
To combat guerilla warfare the US commander general Westmoreland developed a policy of seach and destroy.
260
What is search and destroy?
Type of tactic used by US military in Vietnam to locate Viet Cong fighters and kill them.
261
How did the USA use search and destroy?
He set up heavily defended US bases in South Vietnam near to the coasts. From here helicopters full of troops would descend on a village and search out and destroy any Viet Cong forces they found. Soldiers had to send back reports of body counts.
262
Was search-and-destroy a success?
It did kill Viet Cong soldiers, but there were problems.
263
What were the problems brought about from search-and-destroy?
- The raids were often based on inadequate information.
- Inexperienced US troops often walked into traps.
- Innocent villages were mistaken for Viet Cong strongholds. For every Viet Cong weapon captured by search and destroy, there was a body count of six. Many of these were innocent civilians.
- Search-and-destroy tactics made the US and South Vietnamese forces very unpopular with the peasants. It pushed them towards supporting the Viet Cong.
264
What chemical weapons did the USA use?
- Agent Orange was a highly toxic 'weedkiller' sprayed from planes to destroy the jungle where the Viet Cong hid. The Americans used 82 million litres of Agent Orange to spray thousands of square kilometers of jungle.
- Napalm was another widely used chemical weapon. It destroyed jungles where guerillas might hide. It also burned through skin to the bone.
- Many civilians and soldiers were also killed or harmed by these chemical weapons.
265
What happened in the early stages of the war?
Most US troops were professional soldiers. Morale was good and they performed well.
266
What happened as war intensified in terms of troops?
The US needed more soldiers so they introduced the draft (conscription).
267
When would men be called up into the US army?
As soon as young men left school or college they could be called up into the US army.
268
What are the three terms from 1967 in terms of conscription?
- Many soldiers were young men who had never been in the army before. The average age of US troops was only 19.
- The conscripts knew little about Vietnam - and some cared little about democracy or communism. They just wanted to get home alive. In contrast the Viet Cong were fighting for their own country, and a cause many of them believed in.
- Morale among the US conscripts was often very low. To tackle this problem the generals introduced a policy of giving troops just a one-year term of service. This backfired because as soon as the soldiers gained experience they were sent home.
269
What was going on despite these problems from America's side?
The official American view of the war from 1965 to 1967 was that it was going reasonably well.
270
What were the US and South Vietnamese forces doing in terms of killing?
They were killing large numbers of Viet Cong.
271
What happened although the USA was struggling against guerilla tactics?
They were confident that the enemy was being worn down. The press reports reflected this positive view.
272
What happened to this confidence?
This confidence was shattered early in 1968.
273
What events shattered this confidence?
During the New Year holiday, Viet Cong fighters attacked over 100 cities and other military targets. One Viet Cong commando unit tried to capture the US embassy in Saigon. US forces had to fight to regain control room by room. Around 4500 Viet Cong fighters tied down a much larger US and South Vietnamese force in Saigon for two days.
274
What was the tet offensive?
An attack launched by Viet Cong and North Vietnamese forces in 1968. Seen by many as the turning point in the Vietnam war as US public turned against the war.
275
Was the Tet offensive a success?
In many ways it was a disaster for the communists.
276
Why was it not a success?
They had hoped that the people of South Vietnam would rise up and join them. They didn't. The Viet Cong lost around 10,000 experienced fighters and were badly weakened by it.
277
Why did the Tet offensive prove to be a turning point in the war?
Because it raised hard questions in the USA about the war.
278
What two hard questions did the Tet offensive raise about the war?
- There were nearly 500,000 troops in Vietnam and the USA was spending $20 billion a year on the war. So why had the communists been able to launch a major offensive that took US forces completely by surprise?
- US and South Vietnamese forces quickly retook the towns captured in the offensive, but in the process they used enormous amounts of artillery and air power. Many civilians were killed. The ancient city of Hue was destroyed. Was this right?
279
What was the media like until the Tet offensive?
Until this point media coverage of the war was generally positive, although some journalists were beginning to ask difficult questions in 1967.
280
What shows the during the Tet offensive, gloves came off?
CBS journalist Walter Cronkite (see Source 35) asked
'What the hell is going on? I thought we were winning this war. Don Oberdorfer of The Washington Post later wrote (in 1971) that as a result of the Tet Offensive the American people and most of their leaders reached the conclusion that the Vietnam War would require greater effort over a far longer period of time than it was worth.
281
Who was Walter Cronkite?
He was a CBS news journalist who was reporting in Vietnam in February 1968. He was regarded as the most trusted man in America.
282
What did the government have to have, for a war on such a scale?
The support of American people.
283
Why was the public opinion turning against the war even before the Tet offensive?
Due to the deaths and injuries of so many young Americans.
284
What happened after the Tet offensive then?
The trickle of antiwar feeling became a flood.
285
What were the factors that pushed American people towards antiwar?
- Cost.
- Inequality.
- Purpose.
286
Why was cost a factor?
The war was draining money that could be used to better purposes at home. Yet despite all that spending the USA did not seem to be any closer to winning the war.
287
Why was inequality a factor?
The draft exposed racial inequality in the USA: 30 per cent of African Americans were drafted compared to only 19 per cent of white Americans; 22 per cent of US casualties were black Americans, even though this group made up only 11 per cent of the total US force. World champion boxer Muhammad Ali refused to join the army on the grounds of his Muslim faith. He was stripped of his world title and his passport was removed. Ali was a follower of the RADICAL Black Power group called Nation of Islam. They argued: How could they fight for a country which discriminated against them at home? As some of them pointed out, 'the Viet Cong never called us nigger'.
288
Why was purpose a factor?
Most damaging of all, an increasing number of Americans felt deeply uncomfortable about what was going on in Vietnam.
289
What kind of war was the Vietnam war?
It was a media war.
290
Why was it referred to as a media war?
Thousands of television, radio and newspaper reporters, and a vast army of photographers sent back to the USA and Europe reports and pictures of the fighting.
291
What did the newspapers show?
The newspapers showed crying children burned by American napalm bombs.
292
What did the televisions show?
Television showed prisoners being tortured or executed, or women and children watching with horror as their house was set on fire.
293
How did this affect Americans?
To see such casual violence beamed into the living rooms of the USA was deeply shocking to the average American.
294
How was the Vietnam war viewed?
Was this why 900,000 young Americans had been drafted? Instead of Vietnam being a symbol of a US crusade against communism, Vietnam had become a symbol of defeat, confusion and moral corruption.
295
What is an example of how Vietnam had become a symbol of defeat, confusion and moral corruption?
The My Lai massacre.
296
What was the attitude against protesting?
The antiwar protests, led by students and civil rights campaigners, reached their height during 1968-70.
297
What happened during the first half of 1968, in terms of protests?
In the first half of 1968, there were over 100 demonstrations against the Vietnam War involving 40,000 students. Frequently, the protest would involve burning the American flag - a criminal offence in the USA and a powerful symbol of the students' rejection of American values. Students taunted the American President Lyndon B Johnson with the chant 'Hey, Hey LBJ; how many kids did you kill today?'.
298
What happened in 1969, in terms of protests?
In November 1969, almost 700,000 antiwar protesters demonstrated in Washington DC. It was the largest political protest in American history.
299
What are the features of the My Lai massacre?
- Something dark and bloody.
- Investigation.
- Aftermath.
300
What happened in March 1968?
In March 1968, a unit of young American soldiers called Charlie Company started a search-and-destroy mission.
301
What were these American soldiers told?
They had been told that in My Lai there was a Viet Cong headquarters, and 200 Viet Cong guerrillas.
302
What had these American soldiers been ordered to do?
They had been ordered to destroy all houses, dwellings and livestock.
303
What had these American soldiers been told?
They had been told that all the villagers would have left for market because it was a Saturday. Most of them were under the impression that they had been ordered to kill everyone they found in the village.
304
What happened early in the morning of March 16?
Early in the morning of 16 March, Charlie Company arrived in My Lai.
305
How long did the My Lai Massacre last for?
4 hours.
306
What happened in the span of four hours?
In the next four hours, between 300 and 400 civilians were killed. They were mostly women, children and old men. Some were killed as they worked in their fields; others in their homes. Many were mown down by machine-gun fire as they were herded into an irrigation ditch.
307
Was the My Lai Massacre a success?
No Viet Cong were found. Only three weapons were recovered.
308
How was this operation treated at the time?
As a success.
309
What did the commanding officer's report say?
It said that twenty non-combatants had been killed by accident in the attack, but the rest of the dead were recorded as being Viet Cong.
310
What happened twelve months later?
However, twelve months later, a letter arrived in the offices of 30 leading politicians and government officials in Washington. It was written by Ronald Ridenhour, an American soldier who had served in Vietnam and who personally knew many of the soldiers who took part in the massacre.
311
What did Ronald Ridenhour say that he had in this letter?
He had evidence, he said, of something rather dark and bloody that had occurred in My Lai - or Pinkville as the American soldiers called it. He recounted in detail the stories he had been told about what had taken place and asked Congress to investigate.
312
What happened soon after the letter was received?
Life magazine, one of the most influential magazines in the USA, published photographs of the massacre at My Lai that had been taken by an official army photographer.
313
What did this magazine trigger?
This triggered an investigation that ended in the trial for mass murder of Lieutenant William Calley.
314
Who was Lieutenant William Calley?
He was an officer in Charlie Company.
315
What had he done in My Lai?
He was an officer in Charlie Company. He had personally shot many of the people in the irrigation ditch at My Lai.
316
What happened in September 1969?
In September 1969 he was formally charged with murdering 109 people. Ten other members of the company and the commanding officers were also charged.
317
What was the aftermath of the My Lai massacre?
The revelations were deeply shocking to the American people. The charges were also too much for the army.
318
Who did they place responsibility on?
Calley.
319
Why was the responsibility placed on Calley?
They denied that Calley was acting under orders. His senior officers were acquitted.
320
What was the verdict from this trial?
After a long court case surrounded by massive media attention and publicity, Calley was found guilty of the murder of 22 civilians. In August 1971 he was
sentenced to twenty years hard labour. In November 1974 he was released.
321
What happened after the Tet offensive?
President Johnson concluded that the war could not be won militarily.
322
What did he do after realising that the war could not be won militarily?
He reduced the bombing campaign against North Vietnam and instructed his officials to begin negotiating for peace with the communists.
Johnson also announced that he would not be seeking re-election as president.
323
Why was it shocking that he would not be seeking re-election as president?
It was an admission of failure.
324
What did both the election campaigns following comprise of?
In the election campaign both candidates campaigned to end US involvement in Vietnam.
325
Why did both candidates want to end US involvement in Vietnam?
The antiwar feeling was so strong that if they had supported continuing the war they would have had no chance of being elected anyway. It was no longer a question of 'could the USA win the war?' but 'how can the USA get out of Vietnam without it looking like a defeat?'
326
What happened in November 1968?
Richard Nixon was elected president.
327
What did he do from 1969 to 1973?
From 1969 to 1973 he and his National Security Adviser Henry Kissinger worked to end US involvement in Vietnam.
328
Why was this task so difficult for Henry Kissinger and Richard Nixon?
his was not easy because the bigger question of how to contain world communism - the one that had got the USA into Vietnam in the first place - had not gone away. They did not want to appear simply to hand Vietnam to the communists.
329
How did they try to not appear as though they are handing Vietnam to the communists?
They used a wide range of strategies.
330
What were some of these strategies?
- Improved relations with USSR and China.
- 'Vietnamisation' of the war effort.
- Peace negotiations with North Vietnam.
- Increased bombing.
331
Why was improved relations with USSR and China effective?
In 1969 the USSR and China fell out. It seemed possible that there would even be a war between these two powerful communist countries. As a result, both the USSR and China tried to improve relations with the USA.
332
Why was the 'Vietnamisation' of the war effort effective?
In Vietnam Nixon began handing responsibility for the war to South Vietnamese forces and withdrawing US troops (a process they called Vietnamisation). Between April 1969 and the end of 1971 almost 400,000 US troops left Vietnam.
333
Why were peace negotiations with North Vietnam effective?
From early 1969, Kissinger had regular meetings with the chief Vietnamese peace negotiator, Le Duc Tho.
334
Why was increased bombing effective?
At the same time Nixon increased bombing campaigns against North Vietnam to show he was not weak. US and South Vietnamese troops also invaded Viet Cong bases in Cambodia, causing outrage across the world, and even in the USA.
335
What happened in Paris in January 1973?
All parties signed a peace agreement.
336
What did Nixon describe this agreement as?
Peace with honour. But others disagreed.
337
What did this peace agreement allow Nixon to do?
The door was now open for Nixon to pull out all US troops.
338
What had happened by 29 March 1973?
The last American forces had left Vietnam.
339
Did Nixon secure a lasting peace settlement?
It is not clear whether Nixon really believed he had secured a lasting peace settlement.
340
What happened within two years to Vietnam?
Within two years, without the support of the USA, South Vietnam had fallen to the communists.
341
What was one of the bleakest symbols of American failure in Vietnam?
One of the bleakest symbols of American failure in Vietnam was the televised news images of desperate Vietnamese men, women and children trying to clamber aboard American helicopters taking off from the US embassy. All around them communist forces swarmed through Saigon.
342
What was the outcome of the war?
After 30 years of constant conflict, the struggle for control of Vietnam had finally been settled and the communists had won.
343
How did the Vietnam war affect the policy of conatinment?
The American policy of containment was in tatters.
344
How did the policy of containment fail in the Vietnam war?
- It had failed militarily.
- It had also failed strategically.
- It was also a propaganda disaster.
345
How did the policy of containment fail militarily?
The war had shown that even the USA's vast military strength could not stem the spread of communism.
346
How did the policy of containment fail strategically?
Not only did the USA fail to stop South Vietnam going communist, but the heavy bombing of Vietnam's neighbours, Laos and Cambodia, actually helped the communist forces in those countries to win support. By 1975 both Laos and Cambodia had communist governments. Instead of slowing down the domino effect in the region, American policies actually speeded it up.
347
How was the policy of containment a propaganda disaster?
The Americans had always presented their campaign against communism as a moral crusade. But atrocities committed by American soldiers and the use of chemical weapons damaged the USA's reputation. In terms of a crusade for 'democracy' the Americans were seen to be propping up a government that did not have the support of its own people.
348
How did these failures affect the USA?
They greatly affected the USA's future policies towards communist states.
349
What did the USA try to do in terms of China after the war?
Improve their relations with China.
350
How did they try to improve their relations with China?
- They ended their block on China's membership of the UN.
- The president made visits to China.
351
What did the USA try to do in terms of the USSR after the war?
The USA entered into a period of greater understanding with the Soviet Union.
352
Did the USA achieve their goals in terms of their relationships with China and the USSR?
During the 1970's both the Soviet Union and China got on better with the USA than they did with each other.
353
What changes were implemented into American foreign policy?
The Americans also became very suspicious of involving their troops in any other conflict that they could not easily and overwhelmingly win. This was an attitude that continued to affect American foreign policy into the twenty-first century.
