How far do you agree that increasing direct action was the most significant development bringing improvements to the civil rights of black Americans in the years 1933-80? Flashcards
(5 cards)
Introduction
- Context
- Criteria
- Argument
In the years 1933-80, the position of black Americans underwent change; there were several developments improving their position. In 1933, Roosevelt’s New Deal reforms failed to address racial divisions; by 1941, Roosevelt signed Executive Order 8802. Truman issued further executive orders aimed at desegregation in 1948. In 1964, LBJ passed the landmark Civil Rights Act, succeeded by the Voting Rights Act of 1965. In the 1930s, black civil rights activists focused on legal rights for black Americans, achieving the Brown v. Board of Education case among others; by 1955, they embraced direct action, staging peaceful protests such as the March on Washington in 1963. In this essay, I will define the most significant development as the most widespread, successful and long-term action. I will consider three factors: direct and legal action taken by black activists, and governmental actions. In my view, increasing direct action was the most significant development bringing improvements to the civil rights of black Americans in these years. This said, other developments, such as legal action by black activists and governmental actions, including executive orders and legislation, were impactful.
Para 1: direct action
I agree that increasing direct action was a significant development bringing improvements to the position of black Americans in these years.
1 The Montgomery Bus Boycott, a 381-day boycott of local public transit system, involving forty-thousand black Americans, culminated in a legislative success. In Browder v. Gayle, the Montgomery’s federal court ruled segregation on buses as unconstitutional. The boycott’s success demonstrates the success of direct action; it led to a legislative change.
On the other hand, the boycott’s effects were localised; the ruling was only implemented in Montgomery. In addition, segregation continued in other areas. Improvements were achieved on a scale similar to those of legal action under the NAACP.
2 The 1963 March on Washington, the largest gathering of civil rights of its time and the site of Martin Luther King’s ‘I Have a Dream’ speech, gained presidential, media and public support for civil rights. In response to the march, LBJ signed into law the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The CR Act set up an Equal Employment Commission and prohibited segregation on the basis of race. Its significance was limited, given there was no federal enforcement of the law.
3 The rise of black power advocates in the late 1960s and 70s, like Huey Newton, presented a departure from non-violent to violent direct action. Newton co-founded the Black Panther Party (BPP) calling for equal pay, employment and job opportunities. Members carried firearms and were involved in numerous violent encounters with police. The Party was not successful in achieving its goals; any achievements were localised. Further, violence was counter-productive, alienating many whites who resented the rise of black militancy. Black militant groups undermined the progress of non-violent civil rights movements in achieving national change; black protesters were negatively portrayed by the media.
To conclude, direct action was the most significant development as it lead to legislative victory. It had long term impacts, setting a base of future legal action. In this respect, it was more successful than legal action.
Para 2: legal action
I argue that legal action taken by black activists, in the form of Supreme Court Rulings, improved the position of black Americans during these years.
1 The NAACP, headed by Thurgood Marshall, took cases of segregation to court. The Smith v. Allwright Supreme Court case of 1944, for instance, struck down the ‘white primary’ system, which had prevented black Americans from voting in Democratic primaries in Texas. Although the case achieved its primary objective, it failed to address other discriminatory practices (e.g. gerrymandering, voter literacy tests, and poll taxes).
2 The Brown v. Board of Education (1954), won by NAACP lawyers, ruled that schools be desegregated ‘with all deliberate speed’. It overruled the ‘separate but equal’ principle set forth in the 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson case. Though a landmark ruling, the lack of a fixed date meant desegregation was only patchily implemented. After 10 years, only one percent of black children in the South attended an integrated school. A lack of affirmative action led to the proliferation of direct action, peaceful protest methods and organisations from 1955 onwards.
3 In Boynton v. Virginia of 1960, the Supreme Court ruled segregation in interstate bus travel unconstitutional. The ruling extended the Interstate State Commerce Act to mean that all forms of segregation by race in any type of public transportation were illegal. Many states refused to comply with the decision, and segregation persisted. Further, the ruling led directly to the ‘Freedom Rides’, during which members of SNCC rode interstate buses across the South in mixed racial groups. The act did not do enough to address segregation; activists took direct action.
Many states refused to comply with the decision, and segregation persisted. Further, the ruling led directly to the ‘Freedom Rides’, during which members of SNCC rode interstate buses across the South in mixed racial groups. The act did not do enough to address segregation; activists took direct action.
Although significant, legal victories failed to garner media attention, as the televised beatings of the peaceful Civil Rights protesters had.
Although legal action led to landmark rulings in favour of black enfranchisement and desegregation, rulings were not enforced ‘de facto’, motivating activists to seek change through direct protest. Although significant, legal victories failed to garner media attention, as the televised beatings of the peaceful Civil Rights protesters had.
Although legal action led to landmark rulings in favour of black enfranchisement and desegregation, rulings were not enforced ‘de facto’, motivating activists to seek change through direct protest.
Although significant, legal victories failed to garner media attention, as the televised beatings of the peaceful Civil Rights protesters had.
Although legal action led to landmark rulings in favour of black enfranchisement and desegregation, rulings were not enforced ‘de facto’, motivating activists to seek change through direct protest.
Para 3: governmental action
I suggest that governmental action (Executive Orders and legislation) were a significant development in improving the rights of black Americans during these years.
1 FDR’s Executive Order 8802 banned discriminatory employment practices by companies engaged in war-related work. The Fair Employment Practices Committee (FEPC) was established to oversee compliance. The Executive Order was limited in scope: it did not apply to other private and public sectors. Furthermore, it was a temporary, wartime measure. Truman’s Executive Order 9981 in July 1948, declared that there should be ‘equality of treatment and opportunity for all persons in the armed service’, effectively integrating the Armed Forces. It established the President’s Committee on Civil Rights. Successful in aims: almost all military integrated by 1953. The Armed Forces became an important model for desegregation and equal opportunities. On the other hand, the order faced opposition among Southern senators when proposed as a bill, thus why Truman made the EO. The passage of LBJ’s Civil Rights Act (1964) marked a significant development in the fight for civil rights. The act banned segregation on the grounds of race at all places of public accommodation and by employers and labour unions in the workplace. The Act paved the way for other landmark laws, the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and the Fair Housing Act of 1968. It was highly significant. However, it was largely a result of direct action by black activists, in particular the 1963 March on Washington. Although the federal government introduced a number of significant legislative changes, they were often initiated in response to black American self-organisation. In addition, although they illegalised de jure segregation, laws were poorly and patchily implemented; ‘de facto’ segregation continued regardless.
Conclusion
In conclusion, direct action – especially between 1955-65 – was the most significant development in achieving civil rights for black Americans. It expanded the grounds for further legal action, ensuring the continued enforcement of civil rights in the long-term. Legal challenges by black activists was not as significant. Rulings were not enforced ‘de facto’ and black activists resorted to direct action. Likewise, governmental action was initiated in response to black American protests. It faced resistance and failed to be implemented effectively.
