How Languages are Learned Flashcards
The order in which certain features of a language (for example, negation or 3rd person -s) are acquired in language learning. Also called developmental stages.
Developmental Sequence or Natural Order
A theory that views knowledge (including language) as a complex system of units that become interconnected in the mind as they are encountered together. The more often units are heard or seen together, the more likely it is that the presence of one will lead to the activation of the other.
Connectionism
The expectation that learners will have less difficulty acquiring target language patterns that are similar to those of the first language than those that are different.
Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH)
Instruction in which classroom activities are ‘tasks’ similar to those learners might engage in outside the second or foreign language classroom. Tasks may be complex, for example, creating a school newspaper, or more limited, for example, making a phone call to reserve a train ticket.
Task-based Instruction
The metaphorical place’ in which a learner is capable of a higher level of performance because there is support from interaction with an interlocutor. In Vygotsky s theory, learning takes place through and during interaction inside of this zone.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
In this book, this term is a general one, referring simply to an individuals developing knowledge of the target language. In Stephen Krashen’s terms, however, ‘learning is contrasted with ‘acquisition, and is described as a ‘conscious process that occurs when the learners objective is to learn about the language itself, rather than to understand messages conveyed through the language.
Language Learning
The language we use when we are talking to ourselves, not expecting anyone to hear or respond.
Private Speech
This type of error is the result of trying to use a rule in a context where it does not belong, for example, putting a
regular -ed ending on an irregular verb, as in ‘buyed’ instead of ‘bought’.
Overgeneralization Error
An indication to a learner that his or her use of the target language is incorrect. It can be explicit (for example, in response to the learner error (He go’—’No, you should say “goes”, not “go”’) or implicit (for example, ‘Yes, he goes to school every day), and may or may not include metalinguistic information (for example, ‘Don’t
forget to make the verb agree with the subject’).
Corrective Feedback
A style or way of using language that is typical of or appropriate for a particular setting. For example, speaking and writing usually require different ones; the one used in writing a research report is different
from that used writing a letter to a friend.
Register
This term is most often used interchangeably
with language learning. However, for some researchers, most notably Stephen Krashen, it is contrasted with learning. According to Krashen, acquisition represents ‘unconscious’ learning, which takes when attention is focused on meaning rather than language form.
Language Acquisition
The proposal that there is a limited period during which language acquisition can occur. The strong version is that there are biological mechanisms specifically designed for language acquisition and that these cease to be available at or even before puberty. Thus an older learner has to use general learning mechanisms that are not designed for—and thus not as effective for—
language acquisition. The weak version (sometimes called the sensitive period hypothesis) is that, even though the same learning mechanisms are involved, second language learning will be more difficult for older learners.
Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH)
The language that the learner is exposed to (either written or spoken) in the environment.
Input
A technique for organizing or sequencing material in a textbook or lessons. The basis for the organization is a gradual increase in complexity of grammatical features.
Structural Grading
This approach is based on the premise that successful language learning involves not only a knowledge of the structures and forms of a language, but also the functions and purposes that a language serves in different communicative settings. This approach to
teaching emphasizes the communication of meaning in interaction rather than the practice and manipulation of grammatical forms in isolation.
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
Knowledge that underlies fluent or automatic performance. Also referred to as ‘knowledge how’, it is contrasted with declarative knowledge.
Procedural Knowledge
A research approach that emphasizes how the human mind receives, processes, stores, and retrieves information in learning and retrieving information. The focus is on internal learning mechanisms that are believed to be used for learning in general, not just language learning alone.
Cognitivist
Adapted conversation patterns that proficient speakers use in addressing language learners so that the learner will be able to understand. Examples of interactional modifications include comprehension checks, clarification requests, and self-repetitions.
Modified Interaction
