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Human Body Systems Flashcards

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1
Q

Define Anatomy

A

The study of the biological form of an organism.

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2
Q

Define Physiology

A

The study of the biological functions an organism performs.

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3
Q

Define Endocrine System

A

The system that transmits chemical signals (hormones) to receptive cells throughout body via blood.

Slow acting, long lasting effects.

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4
Q

Define Nervous System

A

The system that transmits information between specific locations using neurons.

Very fast; information is received by neurons, muscle cells, and endocrine cells.

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5
Q

Define Feedback Loops

A

Biological mechanisms that work to maintain homeostasis.

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6
Q

Define Negative Feedback

A

A feedback loop that returns changing conditions back to the set point.

Examples:
temperature
blood glucose levels

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7
Q

Define Positive Feedback

A

A feedback loop that moves the variable further away from the set point (stimulus amplifies a response).

Examples:
lactation
onset of labor in childbirth

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8
Q

Define Theromoregulation

A

Maintaining an internal temperature within a tolerable range.

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9
Q

Define Endothermic

A

Generating heat by metabolism (birds and mammals).

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10
Q

Define Ectothermic

A

Gaining heat from external sources (invertebrates, fishes, amphibians, and non-avian reptiles).

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11
Q

Define Metabolic Rate

A

The amount of energy an animal uses in a unit of time.

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12
Q

Define Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)

A

The metabolic rate of a resting, fasting, non-stressed endotherm.

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13
Q

Define Standard Metabolic Rate (SMR)

A

The metabolic rate of a resting, fasting, non-stressed ectotherm at a particular temperature.

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14
Q

Define Torpor

A

A physiological state in which activity is low and metabolism decreases; saving energy while avoiding difficult and dangerous conditions.

Example: hibernation, estivation

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15
Q

Define Hibernation

A

Winter torpor during cold and food scarcity.

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16
Q

Define Estivation

A

Summer torpor during long periods of high temperatures and scarce water.

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17
Q

Define Toxins

A

Substances that interfere with specific metabolic processes or destroy cells.

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18
Q

Define Dehydration

A

A loss of water accompanied by changes in tonicity, leading to shifts in the molecular concentration that make it difficult for cellular work to continue.

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19
Q

Hierarchical organization of body systems

A

Cells, tissues, organs, organ systems

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20
Q

Organ systems in mammals

A
  • digestive
  • circulatory
  • respiratory
  • immune & lymphatic
  • excretory
  • endocrine
  • reproductive
  • nervous
  • integumentary
  • skeletal
  • muscular
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21
Q

What are the main components and functions of the digestive system?

A 
Main Components:
• mouth
• pharynx
• esophagus 
• stomach 
• intestines 
• liver
• pancreas 
• anus

Main Functions:
• food processing 
       • ingestion 
       • digestion
       • absorption 
       • elimination
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22
Q

What are the main components and functions of the circulatory system?

A

Main Components:
heart
blood vessels
blood

Main Functions:
internal distribution of materials

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23
Q

What are the main components and functions of the respiratory system?

A

Main Components:
lungs
trachea
other breathing tubes

Main Functions:
gas exchange
uptake of oxygen
disposal of carbon dioxide

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24
Q

What are the main components and functions of the immune and lymphatic system?

A 
Main Components:
bone marrow
lymph nodes
thymus
spleen
lymph vessels
white blood cells

Main Functions:
Body defense (fighting infections and cancer)
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25
What are the main components and functions of the excretory system?
``` Main Components: kidneys ureters urinary bladder urethra ``` Main Functions: disposal of metabolic wastes regulation of osmotic balance of blood
26
What are the main components and functions of the endocrine system?
``` Main Components: pituitary gland thyroid pancreas adrenal glands other hormone-secreting glands ``` Main Functions: coordination of body activities
27
What are the main components and functions of the reproductive system?
Main Components: ovaries testes associated organs Main Functions: reproduction
28
What are the main components and functions of the nervous system?
``` Main Components: brain spinal cord nerves sensory organs ``` Main Functions: coordination of body activities detection of stimuli formulation of responses
29
What are the main components and functions of the integumentary system?
``` Main Components: skin hair nails skin glands ``` ``` Main Functions: thermoregulation protection injury infection dehydration ```
30
What are the main components and functions of the skeletal system?
``` Main Components: skeleton bones tendons ligaments cartilage ``` Main Functions: body support protection of internal organs movement
31
What are the main components and functions of the muscular system?
Main Components: skeletal muscles Main Functions: locomotion and other movement
32
What are the four main types of tissues?
1) Epithelial: covers the outside of the body and lines the organs and cavities within the body 2) Connective: binds and supports other tissues (cartilage, tendons, ligaments, bone, blood, adipose) 3) Muscle: controls body movement (skeletal, smooth, cardiac) 4) Nervous: senses stimuli and transmits signals throughout the animal (neurons, glia)
34
How is homeostasis maintained throughout the body?
Fluctuations above or below a set point serve as a stimulus; these are detected by a sensor and trigger a response, which returns the variable to the set point.
35
What are five adaptations for thermoregulation?
* insulation * skin * feathers * fur * blubber * circulatory adaptations * countercurrent exchange * cooling by evaporative heat loss * sweat * behavioral responses * shivering * adjusting metabolic heat production * "antifreeze"
36
What are five adaptations for thermoregulation?
* insulation * skin * feathers * fur * blubber * circulatory adaptations * countercurrent exchange * cooling by evaporative heat loss * sweat * behavioral responses * shivering * adjusting metabolic heat production * "antifreeze"
37
How do the metabolic rates of ectotherms and endotherms compare?
Ectotherms have much lower metabolic rates than endotherms of a comparable size.
37
Effects of disruptions
Disruptions to homeostasis at any level of the system will affect other levels of the system as well. Biological systems are all able to use feedback mechanisms to respond to disruptions, and rebound if the disruption is not too large and rapid for those mechanisms to function.
38
Define Neuron
A nerve cell.
39
Define Cell Body (Neuron)
The neuron's core, also known as the soma. Contains the nucleus and other organelles.
40
Define Dendrite
The short branched extension of a nerve cell; transmits impulses from the synapse to the cell body.
41
Define Axon
The long portion of the cell that carries impulses (action potentials) away from the cell body.
42
Define Central Nervous System (CNS)
The brain and spinal cord.
43
Define Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Nerves throughout the body. • 31 pairs of spinal nerves • 12 pairs of cranial nerves
44
What are the three basic functions of the nervous system?
1) Sensory Function: gathers information from receptors in the body 2) Integrative Function: determines where information is sent 3) Motor Function: responds to signals, homeostasis
45
Define Somatic Nervous System
The part of the peripheral nervous system associated with the voluntary control of body movements via skeletal muscle.
46
Define Autonomic Nervous System
The part of the peripheral nervous system associated with the involuntary control of body processes, such as heart rate, digestion, and respiration, via smooth muscle and glands.
47
Define Parasympathetic Nervous System
The part of the autonomic nervous system that is responsible for the body's rest and digestion response when relaxed, resting, or feeding.
48
Define Sympathetic Nervous System
The part of the autonomic nervous system that directs the body's rapid involuntary response to dangerous or stressful situations.
49
Define Chromatophilic Substance
A staining substance found in the cytoplasm of motor neurons that is rich in rough ER; also called Nissl bodies.
50
Define Myelin
The insulation sheath surrounding axons; increases the speed of neural impulses.
51
Define Nodes of Ranvier
The gaps in the myelin sheath of a nerve.
52
Define Neurofibrils
Fibers in the cytoplasm of an axon.
53
Define Neuroglial Cells
Non-neural cells in the central and peripheral nervous systems that maintain homeostasis, form myelin, and provide support and protection for neurons.
54
What are the five types of neuroglial cells?
* Microglial Cells * Oligodendrocytes * Astrocytes * Ependymal Cells * Schwann Cells
55
Define Microglial Cells
A type of neuroglial cell; a specialized population of macrophages that are found in the central nervous system. They remove damaged neurons and infections and are important for maintaining the health of the CNS.
56
Define Oligodendrocytes
A type of neuroglial cell; the myelinating cells of the central nervous system.
57
Define Astrocytes
A type of neuroglial cell; support synapses and help neurons communicate with blood vessels in the central nervous system.
58
Define Ependymal Cells
A type of neuroglial cell; form the epithelial lining of the ventricles in the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord.
59
Define Schwann Cells
A type of neuroglial cell; the myelinating cells of the peripheral nervous system.
60
How are neurons classified?
``` 1) Function • sensory • motor • inter 2) Structure • multipolar • bipolar •unipolar ```
61
Steps of a nerve impulse
1) Neuron membrane maintains resting potential 2) Threshold stimulus is received 3) Sodium channels open 4) Sodium ions diffuse inward, depolarizing the membrane 5) Potassium channels open 6) Potassium ions diffuse outward, repolarizing the membrane 7) The resulting action potential causes a local bioelectric current that stimulates the membrane 8) Wave of action potentials travel the length of the axon as a nerve impulse
62
Nerve Impulse: _______ diameter = _______ impulse
greater; faster or smaller; slower
63
What determines the speed of a nerve impulse?
Speed is directly proportional to the size of the axon. Myelinated axons conduct impulses faster than unmyelinated ones.
64
Define Synapse
A junction between two nerve cells, consisting of a minute gap across which impulses pass by diffusion of a neurotransmitter.
65
List the order in which an impulse travels down a neuron
dendrite >> cell body >> axon >> synapse
66
Define Nerve Pathway
A neural pathway is the connection formed by axons that project from neurons to make synapses onto neurons in another location, to enable a signal to be sent from one region of the nervous system to another.
67
What are the two types of neurotransmitters?
Excitatory & Inhibitory
68
Define Excitatory Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters that increase the likelihood that the neuron will fire an action potential by increasing membrane permeability.
69
Define Inhibitory Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters that decrease the likelihood that the neuron will fire an action potential by decreasing membrane permeability.
70
Define Agonist
A molecule that binds to a receptor and has the same or similar effect as the neurotransmitter itself does.
71
Define Antagonist
A molecule that binds to a receptor and blocks a response from being produced.
72
Define Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors
A class of drugs that inhibits the uptake of serotonin back into the cell, keeping mood elevated for a longer time.
73
What is Curare?
A poison made from frog skin that causes paralysis by blocking nAChR receptors at the neuromuscular junction.
74
Define Neuronal Pool
A group of neurons that make hundreds of synaptic connections and work together to perform a common function. They help us remember sequential tasks like tying a shoe or riding a bike.
75
What avenues of attack are used by foreign substances to invade the body?
``` Points of Entry: • digestive system • respiratory system • urogenital tract • break in skin Routes of Attack: • circulatory system • lymphatic system ```
76
What is the body's first line of defense against foreign substances?
External physical and chemical defenses (non-specific defenses). External barriers: • epithelial cells • mucus membranes
77
What are some examples of chemical barriers on the epithelium?
``` Sweat: pH 3-5 Tears: washing action Mucus: traps microbes Saliva: antibacterial Stomach Acid: pH 2 Antimicrobial Proteins: digest bacterial cell walls ```
78
What is the body's second line of defense against foreign substances?
Innate, general defenses (rapid responses). | Patrolling cells and proteins attack invaders that penetrate the body's outer barriers.
79
What are the types of phagocytes?
Neutrophils, macrophages
80
Define Leukocytosis
The release of neutrophils from the bone marrow where they're made into the bloodstream.

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