Human Development

Question 1

What is developmental psychology?

Answer 1

The study of how behaviour changes over one’s lifespan

Question 2

What is the post hoc fallacy?

Answer 2

A logical error where one assumes that A causes B because A came before B.

Question 3

What do bidirectional influences suggest?

Answer 3

Development and experiences influence each other, considered a “two-way street”

Question 4

What does a cross-sectional design examine and compare?

Answer 4

People of different ages at a single point in time

Question 5

What does a longitudinal design examine?

Answer 5

The development of the same group of people over time

Question 6

What is an advantage and a disadvantage of a cross-sectional design?

Answer 6

Advantage: quick, cheap, and easy
Disadvantage: cohort effects - people who lived in different time periods may affect data

Question 7

What is an advantage and a disadvantage of a longitudinal design?

Answer 7

Advantage: establishes patterns of development
Disadvantage: attrition - participants can drop out of the study before completion and can affect results systematically

Question 8

Why is the nature-nurture debate still relevant?

Answer 8

Both are important in shaping development and it isn’t “either-or”

Question 9

What are the 3 Nature-Nurture intersections?

Answer 9

1. Gene-environment interactions - the impact of genes on behaviour is dependent on the environment where it develops
2. Nature via nurture - genetic predispositions can drive us to search for and create our environments
3. Gene expression - genes activate or deactivate depending on environmental experiences throughout development

Question 10

What is a zygote

Answer 10

A sperm cell that fertilizes an egg

Question 11

When do the most dramatic changes in prenatal development occur?

Answer 11

The earliest stages of pregnancy, aka conception

Question 12

After conception, what are the 3 next stages of prenatal development?

Answer 12

1. Germinal stage
2. Embryonic stage
3. Fetal stage

Question 13

What happens in the germinal stage of prenatal development?

Answer 13

The zygote divides to form blastocyst, cells continue to divide for the next 10-ish days

Question 14

What happens in the embryonic stage of prenatal development?

Answer 14

Cells begin to assume different functions and form into limbs, facial features, and major organs (e.g. brain & heart)

Question 15

What happens in the fetal stage of development?

Answer 15

Major organs are established, heart begins beating, fetus continues physical maturation

Question 16

Between what period of time do neurons grow at an incredible rate?

Answer 16

Day 18 - 6th month

Question 17

Up to how many neurons per minute do they proliferate?

Answer 17

250,000

Question 18

What are teratogens?

Answer 18

Environmental factors that can exert a negative impact on prenatal development

Question 19

What are some examples of teratogens?

Answer 19

Smoking, drugs, chicken pox, x-rays, anxiety, depression

Question 20

What are 2 potential obstacles to development besides teratogens?

Answer 20

1. Genetic disruptions, can be from disorders or errors in cell division
2. Prematurity, being born before 36 weeks

Question 21

What are motor behaviours?

Answer 21

Bodily motions that occur as a result of self-initiated force that moves bones and muscles

Question 22

We are born with a large set of reflexes, which include sucking and rooting reflexes. What is this also known as?

Answer 22

Automatic motor behaviours

Question 23

What is motor development influenced by?

Answer 23

Physical maturity and cultural and parenting practices

Question 24

In which part of adolescence plays a large role in hormonal release of estrogens and androgens?

Answer 24

Puberty

Question 25

What are the 3 ways that the theories of cognitive development can differ?

Answer 25

1. Stage-like vs. gradual changes in understanding 2. Domain-general vs. domain-specific 3. Principal source of learning

Question 26

Who presented the first complete account of cognitive development?

Answer 26

Jean Piaget

Question 27

What did Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggest?

Answer 27

Children use assimilation to acquire knowledge within a stage, and accommodation forces change between stages when assimilation cannot acquire new information

Question 28

What are the 4 stages outlined in Piaget's cognitive development theory?

Answer 28

1. Sensorimotor 2. Preoperational stage 3. Concrete operations 4. Formal operations

Question 29

At what age and what happens in the sensorimotor stage? (Piaget)

Answer 29

Birth-2 yrs. Children only know what they see, have no object permanence and deferred immitation

Question 30

At what age and what happens in the preoperational stage? (Piaget)

Answer 30

2-7 yrs. Has object permanence but egocentric, doesn't see others' perspective

Question 31

At what age and what happens in the concrete operational stage? (Piaget)

Answer 31

7-11 yrs. Can perform mental operations from actual events and conservation tasks, but can't perform mental operations and need physical experience

Question 32

At what age and what happens in the formal operations stage? (Piaget)

Answer 32

11 yrs. to adulthood Ability to perform hypothetical reasoning and using logic in new situations

Question 33

What are some pros of Piaget's theory of cognitive development?

Answer 33

Still influential to this day, helped change how we think about cognitive development (e.g. children and adults think differently, learning is active)

Question 34

What are some cons of Piaget's theory of cognitive development?

Answer 34

Development is more continuous and less general, underestimated children's competence, culturally biased

Question 35

What did Lev Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development focus on?

Answer 35

Social influences, scaffolding (parents structure environments for learning before slowly removing it), zone of proximal development for learning

Question 36

Which lobes in the brain don't fully mature until late adolescence or early adulthood?

Answer 36

Frontal lobes, responsible for planning, decision making, impulse control

Question 37

At what age does stranger anxiety start and when does it peak?

Answer 37

Starts at 8-9 months, peaks at 12-15 months

Question 38

What are the 3 major styles of temperament?

Answer 38

1. Easy (40%) 2. Difficult (10%) 3. Slow-to-warm up (15%)

Question 39

What is attachment?

Answer 39

An emotional connection we share with those to whom we feel closest

Question 40

What are the 4 attachment styles?

Answer 40

1. Secure attachment (60%) 2. Insecure-avoidant attachment (15-20%) 3. Insecure-anxious attachment (15-20%) 4. Disorganized attachment (5-10%)

Question 41

What are the 4 styles of parenting?

Answer 41

1. Permissive - lenient, little discipline, very affectionate 2. Authoritarian - very strict, punishing, little affection 3. Authoritative - supportive, but set clear and firm limits 4. Uninvolved - neglectful and ignoring

Question 42

What matters most when it comes to parenting styles?

Answer 42

Whether or not a parent is toxic or a child is genetically predisposed towards impulsivity or violent behaviour

Question 43

What are some examples of parenting issues?

Answer 43

- Influence of peers vs. parents on social development - Fathers differ from mothers in parenting style (more of a playmate as less time is spent with babies)

Question 44

About how much difference is there from opposite-sex from same-sex couples in childhood development?

Answer 44

No clear difference

Question 45

What is the main challenge adolescents face when developing?

Answer 45

Identity - who they are, their goals and priorities

Question 46

What did Erikson develop and propose to explain identity development?

Answer 46

8 Virtues Gathered by Adulthood

Question 47

What are the 8 virtues gathered by adulthood that Erikson outlines and when do they take form?

Answer 47

1. Hope (trust vs. mistrust) - infancy 2. Determination/Will (autonomy vs. doubt) - early childhood 3. Purpose (initiation vs. guilt) - play age 4. Competence (industry vs. inferiority) - school age 5. Fidelity (identity vs. role confusion) - teens 6. Love (intimacy vs. isolation) - young adulthood 7. Care (generativity vs. stagnation) - adulthood 8. Wisdom (ego integrity vs. despair) - old age

Question 48

What is the difference between sex and gender?

Answer 48

Sex - biological status Gender - psychological characteristics

Question 49

How do biological factors influence gender differences?

Answer 49

Which toys are played with, sex segregation during play

Question 50

How do social influences play a role in gender development?

Answer 50

Encouraging and expecting certain types of behaviour

Question 51

What did Kohlberg's Moral Development focus on?

Answer 51

Used several moral problems to see what principles people used to solve them

Question 52

What are the 3 major stages of Kohlber's Moral Development?