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human form and function (01) Flashcards

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1
Q

What are respiratory pigments?

A

Respiratory pigments are organic compounds which can combine with oxygen where the partial pressure of oxygen is high, and release oxygen where the partial pressure of oxygen is low

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2
Q

What is the function of respiratory pigments

A

They can combine with oxygen where the partial pressure of oxygen is high, and release oxygen where the partial pressure of oxygen is low

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3
Q

Why has the transportation of blood become a problem for complex animals?

A

Since oxygen is less soluble in watery mediums including blood, transportation of oxygen from the respiratory surface to the tissues/organs is a problem

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4
Q

How have complex animals overcome the problem of transportation of blood?

A

By evolving respiratory pigments

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5
Q

Write examples for different respiratory pigments that can be seen in the animal kingdom

A

Haemoglobin
Haemocyanin
Chlorocruorin
Haemoerythrin
Myogoblin

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6
Q

Write the location of haemoglobin

A

It is present in the blood of humans, vertebrates and annelids

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7
Q

Write the location of haemocyanin

A

It’s present in the hemolymph of arthropods and molluscs

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8
Q

Write the location of chlorocruorin

A

It’s present in the blood of many annelids

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9
Q

Write the location of haemoerythrin

A

It’s present in the blood of marine invertebrates (some annelids)

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10
Q

Write the location of myoglobin

A

present in vertebrae muscle tissues

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11
Q

Write the functions of hemoglobin, hemocyanin, chlorocruorin, and haemoerythrin

A

Transportation of oxygen from the respiratory surfaces to the tissues/organs while transporting carbon dioxide from tissues/organs to the respiratory surface for elimination

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12
Q

Write the function of myoglobin

A

Oxygen storage

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13
Q

What molecules is responsible for the transport of oxygen around the body?

A

Haemoglobin molecule

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14
Q

Describe the nature of a hemoglobin molecule

A

Hemoglobin is composed of 4 subunits

Each subunit is composed of a globin protein and the haem group

A ferrous (iron) atom is located within each haem group and each of these can combine reversibly with one molecule of oxygen to form oxyhemoglobin

So, each hemoglobin molecule can carry upto 4 oxygen molecules

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15
Q

What are haem groups responsible for?

A

The characteristic red colour of the blood

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16
Q

What is the function of the ferrous (iron) atom within each haem group?

A

Each of these can combine reversibly with one molecule of oxygen

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17
Q

How many oxygen molecules can each hemoglobin molecule carry?

A

4

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18
Q

Write the chemical equations for the combination of oxygen with hemoglobin to form oxyhemoglobin

A

Hb + 4O2 ————-> HbO8

(Hemoglobin molecules) <———— Oxyhemoglobin

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19
Q

What are the ways CO2 is transported?

A

As HCO3- ions in the plasma

As carbaminohemoglobin

Dissolved in the plasma

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20
Q

What % of CO2 is transported as HCO3- ions in the plasma?

A

about 70%

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21
Q

What % of CO2 is transported as carbaminohemoglobin?

A

about 23%

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22
Q

What % of CO2 is transported dissolved in the plasma?

A

about 7%

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23
Q

Describe how carbon dioxide ions transport as HCO3- ions in the plasma

A

When CO2 diffuses into red blood cells, the enzyme carbonic anhydrase catalyzed the combination of CO2 with water to form HCO3- and H+ ions

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24
Q

What is the function of the enzyme carbonic anhydrase in transporting HCO3- ions in the plasma

A

When CO2 diffuses into red blood cells, the enzyme carbonic anhydrase catalyzed the combination of CO2 with water to form HCO3- and H+ ions

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25
How does the HCO3- ions move out?
The HCO3- moves out of the erythrocytes into the plasma
26
How does CO2 transport as carbaminohemoglobin?
CO2 combines with the protein group of hemoglobin and forms carbaminohemoglobin
27
Why does CO2 not compete with the oxygen binding sites in hemoglobin?
Because CO2 combines with the protein group of hemoglobin to form carbaminohemoglobin
28
How is CO2 transported while dissolved in plasma?
as free gas
29
What is blood?
Blood is a connective tissue composed of cells and plasma
30
What is blood composed of?
cells plasma
31
Where are red blood cells, leukocytes and platelets developed from?
From the bone marrow in the bones such as ribs pelvis sternum vertebrae
32
Where is erythropoietin hormone from?
the kidneys
33
What does erythropoietin hormone stimulate?
It stimulates the generation of red blood cells
34
What are the 3 types of cellular components of blood
Red Blood Cells White Blood Cells Platelets
35
Write the features of a red blood cell
Small Bi-concave Disk-like cells
36
What organelles do RBC lack
Mature erythrocytes lack nuclei Mitochondria
37
Why do mature erythrocytes lack nuclei?
This character helps transport more hemoglobin molecules within the cell.
38
Why do RBC lack mitochondria?
Because they lack mitochondria, they produce ATP via anaerobic respiration. If they produce ATP via aerobic respiration, that will reduce the oxygen transport efficiency
39
What is the life span of a red blood cell?
120 days
40
How many RBCs are found in a microliter of blood
4-6 million RBC (this figure can vary depending on the gender and health status)
41
Write the main functions of RBC
Transportation of oxygen and carbon dioxide molecules
42
What are the 5 types of leukocytes?
Monocytes Lymphocytes Neutrophils Eosinophils Basophils
43
Write the functions of WBC
Body defense Phagocytic engulfing Digesting microorganisms They develop into T cells and B cells which increase the immune response against foreign substances
44
Write the reason WBC develop into T cells and B cells?
to increase the immune response against foreign substances
45
Where are platelets derived from?
Bone marrow cells
46
What feature don't platelets have?
Nuclei
47
Write the major function of platelets
Blood clotting
48
What does blood plasma consist of?
Water Nutrients Hormones Metabolic Wastes Respiratory Gases Inorganic ions in dissolved forms Plasma Proteins (such as Albumin) Antibodies and fibrinogen
49
What is the pH of human blood
Around 7.4
50
What is the protein concentration of plasma higher than?
Interstitial fluid
51
Write the functions of the components of blood plasma
The dissolved ions in the plasma buffers and maintains the osmotic balance of blood Albumin in the plasma buffers the blood Antibodies are involved in defense Fibrinogen in plasma aids in blood clotting
52
Write the function of the dissolved ions in the plasma
The dissolved ions in the plasma buffers and maintains the osmotic balance of blood
53
Write the function of the albumin in the plasma
Buffers the blood
54
Write the function of the antibodies in the plasma
They're involved in defense
55
Write the function of fibrinogen in plasma
Aids in blood clotting
56
What is serum?
When clotting factors are removed from the plasma, it is called serum.
57
When clotting factors are removed from the plasma, what is it called?
Serum
58
Write the major functions of blood
Defense against foreign invasions Aids in osmoregulation Transporting nutrients Transporting oxygen to organs and removing carbon dioxide from tissues and organs Transporting soluble excretory materials to organs of excretion Transporting hormones from the glands where they are produced to target organs
59
What is a blood clot?
When a tissue is damaged, blood flows from it ad coagulates to form a blood clot
60
Write the functions of a blood clot
This prevents further blood loss Prevents the entry of pathogenic microorganisms which is of clear survival value
61
Describe the reactions that take place in order for coagulation to occur
A highly complex series of reactions take place A cascade reaction
62
Describe how a blood clot is formed.
When the blood vessel is damaged, the connective tissues of the vessel wall is exposed. So, the platelets in blood adhere to the collagen fibers of the connective tissue and release substances that make the nearby platelets sticky This platelet plug provides instant protection against blood loss Then, platelets release clotting factors. Clotting factors trigger the formation of thrombin. Thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin Next, this fibrin aggregates into threads that forms a network of the clot The activated thrombin is also involved in forming more thrombin which completes the formation of the blood clot.
63
How is a platelet plug formed?
When the blood vessel is damaged, the connective tissues of the vessel wall is exposed. So, the platelets in blood adhere to the collagen fibers of the connective tissue and release substances that make the nearby platelets sticky
64
Write the functions of a platelet plug
This platelet plug provides instant protection against blood loss
65
Write the function of clotting factors
Clotting factors trigger the formation of thrombin.
66
Write the function of thrombin
Thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin The activated thrombin is also involved in forming more thrombin which completes the formation of the blood clot.
67
Write the function of fibrin
fibrin aggregates into threads that forms a network of the clot
68
Where can clotting factors be found?
Platelets Damaged Cells Plasma
69
Give examples for clotting factors
Calcium Vitamin K
70
Why does the blood in undamaged vessels not clot?
Because the vessel's lining is very smooth and does not promote platelet aggregation or cell rupture Some substances like heparin prevents clotting. Heparin prevents the conversion of prothrombin into thrombin and fibrinogen into fibrin and is widely used as an anticoagulant clinically.
71
Write the function of heparin
Some substances like heparin prevents clotting. Heparin prevents the conversion of prothrombin into thrombin and fibrinogen into fibrin and is widely used as an anticoagulant clinically.
72
Where is heparin used?
It is widely used clinically as an anticoagulant
73
What are agglutinogen?
The surface of blood contains antigens called agglutinogens
74
What are the 2 antigens/agglutinogens
Antigen A Antigen B
75
What are the 2 antibodies?
Anti- A / Antibody a Anti-B / Antibody b
76
How is the ABO blood group system originated?
The surface of blood cells carries antigens called agglutinogens. In addition, individuals have antibodies in the plasma. A person with a specific antigen in red cells do no possess the corresponding antibody in the plasma ex: anyone with antigen A in the blood cell membrane has no anti-A antibody in the plasma. This concept is used to originate the ABO blood grouping system
77
According to the ABO blood group system, what are the 4 blood groups?
A B AB O
78
How is blood group A defined?
If the red blood cells of a person has antigen A and plasma has antibodies b (Anti-B) then that person's blood group is A
79
How is blood group B defined?
If the red blood cells of a person has antigen B and the plasma has antibodies a (Anti-A), then that person's blood group is B
80
How is blood group AB defined?
If the red blood cells of a person has both antigen A and B and the plasma has no anti-A or anti-B, then that person's blood group is AB
81
How is blood group O defined?
If the red blood cells of a person has neither antigen A or B but the plasma has both antibodies a and b (Anti-A and Anti-B) then that person's blood group is O
82
What are the conditions in blood transfusion?
In blood transfusion, it is vital that they receive blood that is compatible with their own It is important to know the blood groups of the donor and recipient Prior to transfusion, cross-matching is still required to ensure that there is no reaction between donor and recipient blood.
83
Write a vital factor in blood transfusion
In blood transfusion, it is vital that they receive blood that is compatible with their own
84
Why is it vital that they receive blood that is compatible with their own in blood transfusion?
If its incompatible a type of immune response occurs. This is because the donor's RBC membranes possess a glycoprotein which act as antigens and react with antibodies (agglutinin) in the recipient's plasma The result is that the donor's cells are agglutinated
85
Why does a type of immune response occur when people receive blood that is compatible with their own in blood transfusion?
This is because the donor's RBC membranes possess a glycoprotein which act as antigens and react with antibodies (agglutinin) in the recipient's plasma The result is that the donor's cells are agglutinated
86
When a blood transfusion occurs, why is it important to know the blood groups of the donor and recipient?
If its incompatible a type of immune response occurs. This is because the donor's RBC membranes possess a glycoprotein which act as antigens and react with antibodies (agglutinin) in the recipient's plasma The result is that the donor's cells are agglutinated
87
Why are people with blood group AB called "universal recipients"?
People with blood group AB make neither anti-A or anti-B antibodies. Transfusion of type A,B,AB, and O blood into these individuals is likely to be safe since there are no antibodies to react with them. So, they're called universal recipients.
88
Why are people with blood group O called "universal donors"?
An individual with blood group O has neither antigen A or antigen B in the plasma membrane of red blood cells. But they do have both antibodies (anti-A and anti-B) in their plasma So individuals having blood group O can donate blood to people with any blood group So, they're called universal donors.
89
What must be required prior to blood transfusion?
Prior to transfusion, cross-matching is still required to ensure that there is no reaction between donor and recipient blood.

Continuation (3 decks)

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