Human Growth and Development (1/3) Flashcards

Question

# Neurobiology Acetycholine

Answer 1

important for memory, optimal cognitive functioning, emotional balance, control

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affects feelings, behaving, thinking; critical for emotional/cognitive processes; vital to sleep/anxiety control

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important for emotional wellness, motivation, pleasurable feelings

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reduces anxiety, promotes relaxation and sleep

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humanistic psychology - researched self-actualization by interviewing the best people he could find who escaped the "psychology of the average"

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people are always motivated to higher-order needs

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food/water

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security/safety

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belonging/love

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self-esteem/status

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self-actualization - full realization of creative/social/intellectual potential through internal drive

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self-actualization (cognitive) self-esteem/status (social) belonging/love (social) security/safety (physiological) food/water (physiological)

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Developmental task theory - stages of growth: each requires completion of the last for success and happiness

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- arise from physical maturation, influences from culture/society, personal values/desires - the skills, knowledge, behaviors, attitudes a person acquires through physical maturation, social learning, and personal effort

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learning to walk/talk, potty train, foundations of reading

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learning physical skills for games, play with kids of same age, personal independence, gender social roles

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accepting body as it goes through changes, preping for partnership/family life/career, developing ethical system/ideology as a guide for behavior

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finding a partner, achieving a social role, starting home/family/career, developing civic responsibility

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achieving adult civic/social responsibilty, assisting own teenage children, developing adult leisure activities, adjusting to physiological changes

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adjusting to decreasing physical strength/health/retirement, meeting social/civic obligations

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in behavioral sciences behavior is guided exclusively via hereditary factors, but certain behaviors will not manifest themselves until the necessary stimuli are present in the environment - individual's neural development must be at a certain level of maturity for behavior to unfold - counselor strives to unleash inborn abilities, instincts, drives - childhood and past are important topics Freud, Erikson, Gesell (who used one-way mirror to observe children) would be considered maturationists

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Behaviorism Today, clinical applications of Skinnerian principles (and those set forth by behaviorists are called ABA (applied behavior analysis) **empiricists** are behaviorists because empiricism = experience (empiricism is the forerunner of behaviorism). changes are quantitative **organicism** is the opposite - developmental strides are qualitative (ex. gestalt) - mind is a blank slate (tabula rasa - John Locke) and the child learns to behave in a certain manner - passive theory - mind is a computer that is fed info - Locke's idea of empiricism - knowledge is acquired by experience. all behavior is the result of learning

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environment manipulates biological and psychological drives and needs resulting in development

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a positive reinforcing stimulus which maintains or increases behavior

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termination of a positive-reinforcing stimulus or beginning of a negative stimulus - causes behavior to weaken/drop out

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Edward Thorndike when a stimulus-response connection is followed by a reward (reinforcement), that connection is strengthened - behavior's consequences determine the probability of its being repeated

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food = salivation -> bell = salivation

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using rewards and punishments to modify behavior

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can be continuous or variable Behaviors established through variable or intermittent reinforcement are tougher to extinguish

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Reinforce after a fixed number of responses Ex. getting paid after every 5th day of work

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reinforce, on average, after every nth (e.g., 5th) response Ex. slot machine paying out intermittently (ex. after 3/10/5/1 pulls) Think **R**atio = # **R**esponses

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reinforce after a fixed period of time Ex. getting a compliment after every 30 minutes of testing

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reinforce, on average, after every nth (e.g., 3rd) minute/hour/etc. Ex. receiving an email - can't predict when, and it varies over time

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after a rest period, the conditioned response reappears when conditioned stimulus is again presented

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once a response has been conditioned, stimuli that are similar to the conditioned response are also likely to elicit the conditioned response ex. they generalized Little Albert to be scared of all fluffy animals after the initial rat

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shaping behavior by first rewarding the general behavior, then only rewarding behavior that is closer to the target behavior

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unconscious processes rather than cognitive factors (ex. psychoanalytic)

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psychoanalytic There is an interaction between internal needs and environment

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mouth and lips conflict: weaning from breast/bottle feeding fixation may lead to behaviors like smoking, overeating, or excessive talking

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anus and bowl control conflict: toilet training/self-control fixation: anal-retentive (overly neat and organized) or anal-expulsive (messy and rebellious)

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genitals conflict: Oedipus/Electra complex (sexual attaction to opposite-sex parent; rivalry with same sex parent) fixation: identifaction with same-sex parent and development of gender identity Conflictual times for the child **P**hallic and Oedi**p**us

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erogenous zones are dormant; focus on social-intellectual activities conflict: none fixation: no specific fixation; energy directed toward school, friends, hobbies

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genitals conflict: establishing mature sexual relationships fixation: healthy development leads to mature sexual behavior and emotional intimacy

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basic energy or force of life consists of life/death instincts

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incomplete or inhibited development at one of the stages - when life becomes too traumatic, emotional development can come to a halt, although physical/cognitive processes may continue at a normal pace

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unconscious fear of penile loss that originates during phallic stage

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marks start of Electra complex during phallic stage conflict that lasts forever

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instinctive drive to seek pleasure and avoid pain in order to satisfy both biological and psychological needs the driving force of the id

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ability to defer gratification of a desire when circumstantial reality disallows immediate gratification driving force of ego

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areas of bodily excitation such as mouth, anus, genitals

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- most primitive part of mind and source of psychic energy - driven by pleasure principle which seeks immediate gratification - if there is not instant gratification, there is a state of anxiety/tension

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- realistic part of brain that mediates desires of id and superego - operates according to reality principle, which strives to satisfy id's desires in socially appropriate/realistic way

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- holds all of our internalized moral standards and ideals that we acquire from those around us - provides guidelines for making judgements

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unconsicous protective processes that help us control primitive emotions and anxiety

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rejecting from conscious thought (denying/forgetting) the impulse or idea that provokes anxiety (is involuntary) | Suppression is similar but is voluntary

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avoiding the conflict within oneself by ascribing the ideas or motives to someone else

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expressing a motive or impulse in a way that is directly opposite what was originally intended

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providing a reason for a behavior and thereby concealing the true motive or reason for the behavior

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substituting a different object or goal for the impulse or motive that is being expressed

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identifying through fantasy the expression of some impulse or motive

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retreating to earlier or more primitive (childlike) forms of behavior

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refusing to see something that is fact or true in reality

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can be viewed as a positive defense mechanism anxiety or sexual tension or energy is channeled into socially acceptable activities like work

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ego psychologist (believes in man's powers of reasoning to control behavior) - proposes a developmental theory encompassess infancy - death

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Birth - 1.5 YO - Infant develops trust if basic needs are met - *Resulting ego virtue:* hope

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1.5 - 3 YO - Infant asserts self; develops independence if allowed - *Resulting ego virtue:* will (a sense of self)

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3 to 6 YO - Children meet challenges; assume responsibility; identify rights of others - *Resulting ego virtue:* purpose (goal setting)

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6 to 11 YO - Children master social and academic skills or feel inferior - *Resulting ego virtue:* competence

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Adolescence - Individual establishes social and vocational roles and identities or is confused about adult roles - **identity crisis:** in an attempt to find out who they really are, they may experiment with different roles - *Resulting ego virtue:* fidelity (ability to commit)

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Early adulthood - Seeks intimate relationships or fears giving up independence and becoming lonely and isolated - *Resulting ego virtue:* love

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Middle Adulthood - Desire to produce something of value and contribute to society - stagnation = becoming self-centered - *Resulting ego virtue:* care (investment in the future)

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Later Adulthood - View life as meaningful and positive or with regrets - *Resulting ego virtue:* wisdom

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- one of two tendencies that are inherited - how we systemize and organize mental processes and knowledge

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- one of two tendencies that are inherited - adjustment to the environment Two processes within this: - assimilation - accommodation

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modifying relevant environmental events so they can be incorporated into the individual's existing structure

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a substance's weight, mass, volume remain the same even if it changes shape This concept and reversibility happen during concrete operations stage (7-11)

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modifying the organization of the individual in response to environmental events

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a mental structure that processes info, perceptions, experiences

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occurs in preoperational stage focusing on a feature of a given object or situation while not noticing the rest of it

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sensorimotor: first stage emphasizes the senses and child's motoric skills (develops first when young) pre-operations: has pre- in it, must be before operations concrete operations: something has to follow the pre- formal operations: people seem to be more formal as they age NOTE: Piaget often studied his own children Piaget is a structuralist who believes stage changes are qualitative (each stage is a way of making sense of the world)

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Birth to 2 YO - the child differentiates self from objects; can think of an object not actually present; seeks stimulation

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2 to 7 YO - language development is occurring; child is egocentric (child cannot view the world from the vantage point of someone else); has difficulty taking other's POVs; classifies objects by one feature - Acquisition of a symbolic schema (allow language and symbolism in play to occur - milk carton = space ship)

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7 to 11 YO - begins logical operations; can order ojects (small to large; first to last); understands conservation - Learn best through experience/own actions and interactions with others Study hack: Concrete operations, Counting, Conversation all start with C

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11 to 15 YO - moves toward abstract thinking; can test hypotheses; logical problem solving can occur

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Vygotsky disagreed with Piaget's notion that developmental stages take place naturally Vygotsky insisted that the stages unfold due to education intervention! Vygotsky - zone of proximal development (describes difference between child's performance without a teacher vs what they are capable of with an instructor)

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**Stage 1**: punishment and obedience orientation exists **Stage 2**: instrumental and hedonistic orientation prevails (obtaining rewards)

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**Stage 3**: interpersonal acceptance orientation prevails; maintaining good relations, approval of others **Stage 4**: law and order orientation exists; conformity to legitimate authorities

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**Stage 5**: social contract and utilitarian orientation exists; most values and rules are relative **Stage 6**: self-chosen principled orientation prevails; universal ethical principles apply

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d. a typing test is to the level of typing skill mastered

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a woman was dying of cancer and only one drug could save her (but the guy charged a ton of money for a dose). The husband couldn't come up with the money so he broke in and stole it. Should he have done this? The reasoning for the decision (rather than the decision itself) allowed Kohlberg to evaluate the stage of moral development

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*The Seasons of a Man's Life* - found that 80% of the men in the study experienced moderate to severe midlife crises - an "age 30" crisis occurs in men when they feel it will soon be too late to make later changes

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early adult transition (17 to 22 YO) mid-life transition (40 to 45 YO) late adult transition (60 to 65 YO)

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1. build, modify, enhance life structure 2. form and modify single components of the life structure such as: life dreams, occupation, life-marriage, family relationships, mentor, forming mutual relationships 3. tasks to become more individuated

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time of questioning their life structure including career - occurs in transition period of age 40 to 45 - Sometimes both men and women may experience a painful self-evaluation process but not at a crisis level

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Important to look at all levels and systems impacting a person ex. a troubled individual is a part of several systems such as family, school, peers, community, etc. ! Must be sensitive to influences of all these systems

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see importance of social environment and cognitive factors - go beyond behaviorism (the simple stimulus-response paradigm because we can think about connections between our behaviors and the consequences)

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self-efficacy - the belief that we can perform some behavior or task - can help explain how it is that people change Self-efficacy is facilitated through: - **Modeling** after other's behaviors - **Vicarious experience** (watching others perform the behavior) - receiving **verbal persuasion** from others that one can do a task - paying attention to own **physiological states** such as emotional arousal or anxiety involved in doing the behavior

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Developed a scheme for intellectual and ethical development

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- authorities know - there are true authorities and wrong authorities - good authorities may know but may not know everything yet

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- there may not be right or wrong answers, uncertainty may be OK - all knowledge may be relative - in an uncertain world, I'll have to make decisions

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- initial commitment - several commitments - and balancing them - commitments evolve, and they may be contradictory

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gender stereotyping male-imposed standards devaluation of feminine qualities

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one of the first to speak out against the masculine bias found in psychoanalytic theory

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wrote *Toward a New Psychology of Women* - a large part of women's lives has been spent helping others develop emotionally, intellectually, socially - this 'caretaking' is a central concept differentiating the development of women from men

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- people grow toward relationships throughout life - mature functioning is characterized by mutuality and deepening connections - psychological growth is characterized by involved in complex and diversified relational networks - mutual empathy and empowerment are at the core of positive relationships - grow-fostering relationships require engagements to be authentic - grow-fostering relationships stimulate growth and change in all people - goals of development are characterized by an increasing ability to name and resist disconnections, sources of oppression, obstacles to mutual relationships

Answer 106

*The Dance of Intimacy* Women need to re-evaluate their intimate relationships which may not be working, and choose a healthier balance between other-oriented and self-absorption - competent relationships allow for each person to be appreciated and enhanced, and the woman should show strength, independence, and assertiveness

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*The Mismeasure of Women* women are judged and mismeasured by their fit into a male world - both genders are more alike than different but they are perceived as different because of the roles they have been assigned - Society pathologizes women

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*In a Different Voice* women view relationships and experience of relationships differently than men do -Their communication patterns are also different

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Women score lower because they use criteria of human relationships and caring while men use criteria of justice and rights There is overlap between men and women on the instrument

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Wrote *Passages: Predictable Crises of Adult Life* in 1976

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transitional periods between life stages and are different between most individuals - provide opportunities for growth - through the crises we face in making constructive changes between life stages

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Over 90% of US population believes in a divine power/greater being - more broad than religion - May directly influence clients in view of self, relationships, worldview, nature/cause of perceived problems - Counselors must be able to identify issues of spirituality important to client's situation

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adaptive thinking or action (Piaget) or ability to think abstractly - not fixed or determined solely by genetics - environment, experiences, cultural factors influence intelligence

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general intelligence (g) special abilities (s)

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identified several primary mental abilities

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It may be biased against those who have not had opportunities to learn or experiences those things the test measures

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Emotional intelligence can operate independently of reasoning and thinking processes (is based solely on human emotions) - learned developmental processes - emotional intelligence = self-motivated, empathic, grasps social signals/nonverbals, strong interpersonal abilities

Answer 118

implies nearness/proximity - ex. one is more likely to select a partner who lives nearby

Answer 119

stresses DUALISTIC THINKING (common to teens in which things are conceptualized as good/bad or right/wrong) he is known for his ideas related to adult cognitive development; especially college students as young adults move into **relativistic thinking**, they'll start to understand that not everything is right/wrong, but an answer can exist relative to a specific situation

Answer 120

associated with adult cognitive development - interpersonal development! - a constructive model of development - individuals construct reality throughout the lifespan - emphasizes meaning making Holding environment: client can make meaning in the face of a crisis and can find new direction

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examine individuals (not groups of people) in depth ex. Freud; Piaget

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large numbers of people are studied to create general principles that apply to the population ex. DSM, behaviorism

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Two definitions: 1. each stage emerges from the one before it 2. environmental factors can influence genetic expression

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a traditional psychoanalytic foothold and the site of landmark work in the area of biofeedback (which helps clients learn to control bodily processes more effectively using electronic devices)

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the study of human strengths such as joy, wisdom, altruism, ability to love, happiness, wisdom popularized by Seligman (learned helplessness syndrome pioneer)

Answer 126

Bonding and attachment have survival value (adaptive significance) - in order to lead a normal social life, the child must bond with an adult before age 3 - if bond is severed at early age, known as object loss. This causes abnormal behavior (psychopathology) - *Object* = target of one's love. if the child was unable to bond with an adult by age 3, they would be incapable of having normal social reltaionships as an adult **B**owlby and **B**onding

Answer 127

maternal deprivation and isolation in rhesus monkeys - believes attachment is innate and not learned - the monkeys that were placed in isolation during first few months of life displayed traits similar to individuals with autism (trouble communicating with others and forming social bonds)

Answer 128

found few differences that could be attributed to genetics and biological factors in relation to males outperforming females in mathemathical calculations - found that males did not outperform females until high school/college, so these differences may come from child-rearing patterns rather than bodily chemistry

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12/100,000

Answer 130

qualitative changes between stages occur

Answer 131

researched depth perception in children by using the visual cliff - seems to develop around 6 mo

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watching violence tends to make children more aggressive - even nursery school age children display more violent behavior after observing violence. The more we withness violence, the less it bothers us (we behave in more violent behavior)

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the study of animals' behavior in their natural environment - coined by Konrad Lorenz (work on inprinting in animals) - Lorenz compared us to wolf/baboon and said we are naturally aggressive (aggressiveness is part of our evolution and was necessary for survival) - catharsis is the only way to get anger out (using methods like competitive sports)

Answer 134

labratory research using animals and attempts to generalize the findings to humans

Answer 135

1. common belief that school teachers could double as counselors 2. counseling was conceptualized as focusing on vocational issues (not a concern for elementary school children) 3. secondary schools utilized social workers and psychologists who would intervene if emotional problems were still an issue as the child got older

Answer 136

fixed-action patterns (FAP) elicited by sign stimuli - FAP will result whenever a releaser in the environment is present - the programmed action, or sequence of behavior, will not vary

Answer 137

the balance between what one takes in (assimilation) and what is changed (accommodation) - occurs when a child achieves a balance - when new info is presented which the child's current cognitive structures (schemas) cannot process, disequilibrium sets in - the child is forced to change schemas to accommodate the novel info, and equilibrium is mastered

Answer 138

founder of psychology in the US and the first president in the American Psychological Association popularized study of the child and child guidance - wrote seminal works on adolescence

Human Growth and Development (1/3) Flashcards

General Topics (162 cards)