Human Memory Systems Flashcards
(53 cards)
1
Q
define memory
A
- the ability to store and retrieve information over time
-There are different types of memory that are stored differently in the brain.
2
Q
brain plasticity
A
from age 0 to 12 years
3
Q
Types of Memory:
A
- iconic memory
- any modality - touch, vision, sound
- immediate and continue for under a second
- short-term memory - always conscious
- info held for less than 30 seconds,
- through rehearsal (sub-vocal),
- capacity; 7(-2/+2) items,
- interference = preservation - limits capacity due to competition of resources
- working memory - always conscious
- modern term for short-term memory
- gut instinct
- intermediate-term memory
- from 30 sec to 2 weeks
- e.g. what you had for breakfast
- from 30 sec to 2 weeks
- long-term memory
- invite connections
- episodic memory (autobiographical)
- events - personal
- semantic memory
- facts
- declarative memory
- can be either semantic or episodic = info that you know
- retrieval failure
- procedural memory
- actions - non-conscious
- prospective memory
- future intentions
- 30 active intentions
- automatic = unconscious
4
Q
Memory components
A
- phonological loop
- visuospatial cortex
- smell - unconsciously
- central executive
- iconic memory
- any modality - touch, vision, sound
- immediate and continue for under a second
- short-term memory - always conscious
- info held for less than 30 seconds,
- through rehearsal (sub-vocal),
- capacity; 7(-2/+2) items,
- interference = preservation - limits capacity due to competition of resources
- working memory - always conscious
- modern term for short-term memory
- gut instinct
- intermediate-term memory
- from 30 sec to 2 weeks
- e.g. what you had for breakfast
- from 30 sec to 2 weeks
- long-term memory
- invite connections
- episodic memory (autobiographical)
- events - personal
- semantic memory
- facts
- declarative memory
- can be either semantic or episodic = info that you know
- retrieval failure
- procedural memory
- actions - non-conscious
- prospective memory
- future intentions
- 30 active intentions
- automatic = unconscious
- iconic memory
5
Q
dissociation and double dissociation
A
- help to identify neural substrates of various brain functions.
- It explains how brain damage or lesions can affect different types of memory functions.
6
Q
Dissociation
A
- When you know localisation of brain damage or lesion and find that one function is knocked out but other related functions are preserved
- e.g. individual looses ability to name category of animals but can name all other objects.
7
Q
double dissociation:
A
-functional loss in a brain area
- Lesion in specific brain area impairs function x but not y then demonstrate that lesion of separate brain area impairs y but not x.
-Patternson & Plaut “the gold standard was always a double dissociation” (2009)
8
Q
Outline the three key processes in memory:
A
-encoding
-storage
-retrieval
9
Q
encoding
A
- processes occurring during initial encounter with to be remembered stimulus = stage 1
- process it through senses or relate to yourself
10
Q
storage
A
- attention via central executive → working memory → intemediate → LTM
11
Q
retrieval
A
- recovering stored info from the memory system = stage 3
12
Q
Forgetting can result from…
A
-a failure in any of key stages in memory (ESR), rather than a process in itself
13
Q
recognition memory:
A
retrieval hard despite knowing it so hard to retrieve
-> tip of the tongue phenomenon
14
Q
The Multi-Store model of memory by Atkinson & Shiffrin (1974), which includes:
A
- sensory inputs → sensory store + encoding → short-term memory + rehearsal → ←long-term memory + retrieval
15
Q
Sensory Memory:
A
- Auditory (echoic)
- holds info for approx 3 sec
- visual (iconic) memory
- holds info for approx. 250 ms
16
Q
Short Term Memory:
A
-Now termed as working memory by Baddeley & Hitch (1974)
- Three components:
1. the central executive; resembles what we would call ‘attention’
2. phonological loop; holds info in a speech-based form
3. visuo-spatial sketchpad; specialised for holding visual and spatial info
17
Q
Working Memory:
A
- Working memory is more dynamic than unitary STM
- with a limited capacity (differentiates it from long-term memory which is unlimited in capacity and duration of storage)
- usually found that we can only store around 7+/- 2 pieces of info in memory (Miller, 1956)
- chunking - grouping bits of info to make remembering easier
18
Q
Double Dissociation in Memory:
A
- Explores whether short-term and long-term memories are distinct?
- If they are we would presumably see patients with impaired STM and preserved LTM?
- If we also saw the reverse pattern preserved STM and impaired LTM this would be an example of a double dissociation.
- Researchers and clinicians have found this pattern to be supported.
- E.G. KF = patient with impaired STM but fine LTM
(Shallice & Warrington, 1970) - single association
- E.G. KF = patient with impaired STM but fine LTM
19
Q
Interference in WM
A
- Traces only remain in WM with repeated rehearsal (i.e. attending to the information)
- They are therefore prone to interference
20
Q
Retroactive interference:
A
- New information interferes with the retention of old information in WM (trying to remember your old phone number, having used your new number for a few months; finding it difficult to revert back to manual gear changes having recently been shown how to use an automatic)
21
Q
Proactive interference:
A
- Old information interferes with the recall of new information (mistakenly giving your old phone number instead of your new one; attempting to change gears manually in a newly bought automatic)
22
Q
Primacy-Recency Effect:
A
- Primacy-Recency or the Serial Position Effect
- When presented information in serial order, we remember more from the beginning and end of the list, at the expense of the intermediate items
23
Q
Craik & Lockhart (1972) on levels of processing
A
- Depth of encoding determines later memory for information
- Processing at encoding can be shallow or deep. -The greater the processing the meaning of stimuli at encoding the deeper the level of processing and greater likelihood of later storage and retrieval.
- Importantly Craik & Lockhart disagree that rehersal will improve LTM as it just repeats previous operation.
- BUT rehersal has beneficial effects but they are small and not for every type of memory e.g. Prospective Memory may not benefit.
24
Q
Long Term Memory:
A
- There is a transfer process from working memory to long-term memory - as a result of rehearsal and elaboration
- very large capacity
- storage can be for a few minutes but in theory can be for a lifetime
- In general, meaning is encoded rather than exact representation (Sachs, 1960s)
25
Storage into long-term memory is known as...
-consolidation
26
Consolidation
- Involves structural change: the pattern of neural pathways are changed
- Long term potentiation: strengthening of synapses, believed to be the cellular foundation for memory
- Research in to how to induce LTP useful for dementia treatment
- Rats given NMDA receptor antagonists display memory deficits. Mice bred with enhanced NMDA function show greater LTP and better memory
-Requires metabolic activity for minutes/hours after the stimulus has been presented
27
which brain region is involved in consolidation
hippocampus
28
what is required for Retrieval?
- Cue required (e.g. prompt, reminder, question)
- Original stimulus reconstructed using information from cue
- The more information available, the easier the retrieval
29
what aids retrieval?
- A good 'filing system':
- e.g. mnemonic's (memory aids, Method of Loci)
- Make something personally relevant to you and you're more likely to remember it
30
what can retrieval be affected by?
- interference
- Proactive - new phone number replaces old number
- Retroactive - old route home blocks new route home
31
Factors Affecting Retrieval:
- Levels of processing,
- the more something is elaborated at time of encoding the easier it will be to retrieve
- organization,
- of concets in memory (also associations between concepts stored inLTM may facilitate recall)
- context,
- being in the same place/emotional state as time of encoding facilities recall
- state-dependent memory
32
state/emotion dependent recall
- Information is better recalled when the individual is in the same state during encoding and retrieval
- this includes both the environment and their internal mental state
- E.G. works with drugs and alcohol too (Weissenborn 2000).
- Godden & Baddely 1975 - Divers learned words on land and underwater - recall was best when the learning environment matched the retrieval environment.
33
Declarative (explicit) memory
- Memory for facts, for information that can be conveyed by statements
- Involves conscious recollection of events / facts
- Encompasses semantic and episodic memories
- e.g. Your birthday
34
Non-declarative (implicit) memory
- Generally doesn't involve conscious recollection e.g. procedural memory
- Priming Subtle; subtle cues/hints
35
procedural memory
- Memory for skills and actions
- often in the absence of conscious recollection
- e.g. how do you tie your shoelaces?
36
name types of declarative memory
Semantic & Episodic Memory
37
semantic memory
- facts and ideas
- what is the capital of Peru?
- the meaning of the word 'DOG'
38
episodic memory
- Memory for events, situations - centered around you
- your first day at university
- what did you have for breakfast today?
39
Episodic/Autobiographical Memory:
- Most episodic memory decline over time however decline is not uniform over all memories e.g.
- Bahrick et al (1975) - memories of student days showed remarkable preservation -
40
Reminiscence bump
- Surprising perseverance of memories occurring between ages of 10 and 30. Why?
- early childhood amnesia = priming ⇒ attention bias
-- Stability of early adulthood memories is remarkable as...
-> Majority of first time experiences.
41
why are novel experiences memorable?
because of the lack of proactive interference from previous learnings
42
evidence for reminiscence bump
- More evidence for reminiscence bump for positive than negative memories (Bertsen & Ruben, 2002).
43
Flashbulb memory
detailed and extremely vivid memories regarding circumstances surrounding very shocking event e.g. September 11th
-Only occur with shocking and emotionally significant events. Evolutionarily adaptive?
44
what enhances retention?
-Emotional arousal during encoding
-Also frequently rehearsed and talked about
45
Recognition
- Sensing that a stimulus has been previously encountered, sense of familiarity
- Generally easier than recall, as information is contained in the cue
- Recognition can be direct from a set stimuli or from a mental search of LTM store
46
Recall
- Reconstruction of a stimulus using the information available from the cue and information from LTM
- Checked by the process of recognition
- Greater 'cognitive demand' than recognition
- Recall can be direct from the cue or arise after problem-solving strategies have been employed
47
recall and recognition are entirely stable. True or False?
False - can be inaccurate
48
Eye Witness Reports (Loftus, 1979)
- Participants watch a film of an accident, one includes a STOP sign, the other a YIELD sign. Using specific wording, you can change people's memory:
- 'How big was the stop sign by the road?'
- The participant won't remember the fact that they saw a yield sign
49
The main causes of forgetting from either working memory or long-term memory:
- Passage of time
- Rapid decay of information from WM
- Cell death leads to loss of LTM (can be accelerated e.g. dementia)
- Interference
- Interference to storage in WM e.g. pro-/retroactive
- Connections are remolded over time in LTM, influenced by pro- and retroactive interference of information
50
51
Infantile amnasesia
inability to remember events
from early childhood.
52
ageing affects memory
- Generally people can not remember anything before 2 years.
- First memories usually occur between 2 and 5 years.
- Probably because brain regions responsible for episodic memory are not sufficiently developed.
- Reminiscence bump = preserved memories for 10 to 30 years (many first time occurances)
53
Normative ageing
- Speed of processing declines (Perfect, 1994)
- Memory declines and forgetfulness increases but shouldn't interfere with ongoing functioning
