Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

Biology > Human Physiology > Flashcards

Human Physiology Flashcards

1
Q

Digestion

A

Breakdown of food into smaller pieces for effective absorption by the villi into the bloodstream.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

Mouth

A

Voluntary control of eating and swallowing, mechanical digestion of chewing and chemical starch digestion by saliva, which contains lubricants and enzymes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

Esophagus

A

Movement of food by peristalsis from mouth to the stomach

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

Stomach

A

Churning and mixing with secreted water and acid to kill foreign bacteria and other pathogens in food and to initiate protein digestion

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

Small Intestine

A

Final stages of digestion, neutralizing stomach acid and absorb nutrients

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

Pancreas

A

Lipase, amylase and protease secretion to aid digestion

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

Liver

A

Secretion of surfactants in bile to break up lipid droplets

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

Gallbladder

A

Storage and regulated release of bile

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

Large intestine

A

Re - absorption of water, further digestion especially of carbohydrates, formation and storage of feces

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

Digestion Full Process

A
  1. Food is chewed in the mouth, turned into bolus by amylase
  2. Bolus enter the esophagus, move to the stomach by peristalsis
  3. Stomach churns food with acid, becoming chyme. Acid kills bacteria and starts protein digestion
  4. Chymes enters small intestine, where acid needs to be neutralized. Enzymes in SI have optimum pH for digesting lipids or further digest carbohydrates and proteins. Absorption starts at the beginning of the ileum
  5. Food enters large intestine: undigested material and digestive juices. Water, vimatins K and B, minerals reabsorbed
  6. Feces formed in LI stored in the rectum before egestion
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

Peristalsis

A

The longitudinal muscle contracts to widen the lumen, allowing the bolus to move down. The circular muscle contracts to constrict the lumen, pushing it further down.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

Mechanical Digestion

A

Physically breaking down food through chewing, grinding, churning into smaller pieces

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

Chemical Digestion

A

Breaking down food into its basic components using enymes.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

Pancreatic Amylase

A

Secreted by the pancreas into the small intestine, breaks down starch into maltose. Optimal pH of 7

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

Pepsin

A

Secreted by the stomach into the stomach, breaks down proteins into amino acids. Optimal pH of 2

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

Pancreatic Lipase

A

Secreted by the pancreas into the small intestine, breaks down triglycerides into glycerol and fatty acids. Optimal pH of 7.2

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

Lipid Digestion

A
  • Fat globule separated into smaller micelles by bile (amphiphilic)
  • The hydrophobic side attaches to the emulsified droplets, exposing the hydrophilic side to the exterior to prevent the droplets from reforming
  • The pancreas secretes lipase after to conduct hydrolysis
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

Protein Digestion

A
  • Pepsin in the stomach breaks protein chains into peptones and proteoses
  • In the small intestine, trypsin and chymotrypsin break peptones and proteoses into single or double amino acid units
  • Hydrolysis occurs to separated amino acids
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

Carbohydrate Digestion

A
  • Salivary amylase breaks up long chains
  • In the small intestines, pancreatic enzymes break dissacharides into monosaccharides
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

Acinar Cells

A

Found in the pancreas, secrete digestive enzymes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

Path of Pancreatic Enzymes from Stomach to SI

A

Pancreatic juice containing the enzymes, carried through the pancreatic duct to the duodenum, released into the lumen of the SI

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

Examples of SI Enzymes

A
  • Nuclease break down DNA and RNA
  • Maltase breaks down maltose into glucose
  • Lactase: lactose into galactose and glucose
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

Absorption

A

The movement of nutrients from the digestive system into the body through the bloodstream. Mostly occurs in the small intestine

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

Structure of the Small Intestine

A
  • Folds in the lining increases SA with villi and microvilli
  • Layers from inner to outer: mucosa, submucosa, muscularis and serosa
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

Muscularis Layer of the Small Intestine

A

Two smooth muscle layers. One thin outer longitudinal layer that shortens and elongates the intestine. Two a thicker inner circular layer causes constriction. Nerves lie between these two layers and allow them to work together to propagate food proximal (closer) to distal (further): peristalsis

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

Villus

A
  • Present in a large amount to increase SA
  • Rich blood supply to aid in absorption of nutrients into the blood, including bases of nucleic acids, vitamins and minerals
  • Microvilli present as outward folds of the plasma membrane to increase SA
  • Contain lacteals to aid in lipid absorption
  • Intestinal crypts, glandular cells that secrete fluids to aid in movement of chyme through the intestine
  • Thin epithelium to increase diffusion rate
  • Capillaries to absorb glucose and amino acids
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

Methods of Absorption: Villi

A

Simple and facilitated diffusion, active transport and pinocytosis

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

Functions of the 4 Layers of the Small Intestine

A
  1. Mucosa: epithelium formed by enterocytes, goblet cells and endocrine cells
  2. Submucosa: contains blood vessels and connective tissue
  3. Muscularis: conducts peristalsis
  4. Serosa: single layer of epithelial cells with connective tissue
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

Enterocyte

A

Cells with microvilli, absorb glucose

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

Goblet Cells

A

Produce mucus

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

Lipid Absorption (5 Step Process)

A
  1. Fatty acids enter the epithelial cell
  2. Synthesis of fats in endoplasmic reticulum
  3. Fats form chylomicrons, a lipoprotien particle that transport fats
  4. Chylomicrons enter the lacteal
  5. Lymph transports chylomicrons
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

Dialysis Tubing

A

Models absorption
- A partially permeable membrane cellulose tubing containing microscopic pores that allow water, small molecules and ions to pass
- Separation of smaller molecules from large molecules in solution by selective diffusion
- Iodine: black if starch is present, orange if absent
- Benedict’s becomes brick red if glucose is present, blue if absent

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

2 Functions of the Respiratory System

A
  1. Gas exchange for cellular respiration
  2. Ventilation
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

Nasal and Oral Cavity

A

Where air enters the respiratory system

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

Pharynx

A

The membrane lined cavity behind the nose and mouth, connecting them to the esophagus or trachea

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

Larynx

A

Hollow muscular tube forming a passage to the lungs and holding the vocal cords

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

Trachea

A

Tube reinforced by rings of cartilage, extending from the larynx to the bronchi, conveying air to and from the lungs

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

Lungs

A

RIght lungs has three lobgs, left two. Conduct inspiration and expiration to bring in oxygen and removed carbon dioxide

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

Bronchi, bronchioles

A

Pathways of air into the lungs

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

Alveoli

A

Tiny air sacs at the end of bronchioles

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

Pathway of Air into the Respiratory System

A

Nasal and oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, lungs, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
42
Q

Alveolar Cells

A

Type 1 and II pneumocytes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
43
Q

Type I Pneumocytes

A

Extremely flat and thin alveolar cells to increase SA for diffusion. Amniotic and unable to replicate but can form from type II pneumocytes.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
44
Q

Type II Pneumocytes

A

Secretes surfactants that create a moist surface and increases gas exchange, preventing alveoli from sticking to each otherS

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
45
Q

Surfactant

A

Water based solution containing phospholipoproteins

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
46
Q

Gas Exchange Summary

A

Replacing carbon dioxide with oxygen in the blood in lungs

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
47
Q

How Gas Exchange Supports Cellular Respiration

A

Obtains oxygen and removes carbon dioxide for ATP synthesis.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
48
Q

Gas exchange occurs through diffusion, driven by the difference in [O] between x and y, a and b

A

x: cells
y: blood

a: lungs
b: external environment

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
49
Q

Purpose of Branching of Airways in the Respiratory System

A

Increase surface area to increase efficiency of gas exchange

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
50
Q

The longer air remains in the alveolus, the a the [O], b the concentration gradient that drives diffusion of oxygen

A

a: lower
b: decreasing

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
51
Q

Alveolar [O] compared to [O] in blood that flows past the alveoli

A

Higher

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
52
Q

Alveolar [CO2] comapred to [CO2] in blood that flows past the alveoli

A

Lower

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
53
Q

2 Locations of Gas Exchange

A
  1. Blood and external environment at the alveoli
  2. Cells and blood at the capillaries
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
54
Q

Ventilation Definition

A

Muscle movement to move fresh air into alveoli

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
55
Q

Ventilation Responsibility

A

Maintaining a concentration gradient for exchange to occur between air in the alveoli and blood in capillaries

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
56
Q

Gas Laws

A

Charles: V/T
Boyle: PV
Gay - Lussac: P/T
Combined: PV/T

57
Q

Inspiration

A
  • External intercostal muscles contract
  • Internal relax
  • Diaphragm contracts (drops)
  • Abdominal muscles relax
  • Pressure decreases, volume increases, air enters
  • Rib cage expands
58
Q

Expiration

A
  • Internal intercostal muscles contract
  • External intercostal muscles relax
  • Diaphragm relaxes, rises
  • Abdomoinal muscles contract
  • Pressure increases, volume decreases, air escapes
59
Q

Antagonistic muscles

A

Move in opposite directions to move body parts: external and itnernal intercostal msucles

60
Q

Tidal Volume

A

Volume of air that enters and leaves the lungs during a single breath

61
Q

Regulation of Breathing

A
  • Brain sends nerve signals to the rib cage and diaphragm causing contraction and relaxation
  • Rate of breathing controlled by CO2 levels in the blood
  • CO2 produced dissolves in blood, creating carbonic acid
  • Low pH sensed by medulla oblongata, which sends signals to increase breathing
  • Increased oxygen levels causes pH to return
62
Q

Emphysema

A
  • Collapsed alveoli
  • Airways unable to hold shape during exhalaiton
  • Loss of elasticity causes alveoli to become thicker, larger and full of mucus
  • Caused by long term exposure to chemical irritants
  • Symptoms: shortness of breath, wheezing, chest pain, phlegm production, infections
63
Q

Lung Cancer

A
  • Uncontrolled growth of lung cells
  • Coughing up blood, wheezing, weight loss, tumor rpessing on other organs
  • Caused by smoking, air pollution, infections and genetic predispositions
64
Q

Type of Circulatory System in Humans

A

Double circulatory system: two separate pathways that blood follows

65
Q

Galen vs Harvey

A

Galen: arteries veins separate systems, heart is pump for blood

Harvey: blood circulates around the body with heart acting as pump, valves in veins

66
Q

5 Components of Blood

A
  • Plasma: carries dissolved substances, e.g. proteins, hormones, CO2, glucose, vitamins and minerals
  • Erythrocytes: contains hemoglobin proteins to transport oxygen
  • Leukocytes: agents of the immune system
  • Platelets: blood clot
  • Water
67
Q

Interstitial fluid

A
  • Tissue fluid
  • Liquid part of blood that passes through the capillary wall to bathe tissue cells
  • Consists of waeter, sugars, salts, fatty acids, amino acids, coenzymes and hormones, and waste products
  • Cells exchange materials with the fluid
  • After exchange: tissue fluid reabsorbed into capillaries, draining into venules
68
Q

Hemostasis

A

Prevention of bleeding an maintenance of blood volume

69
Q

Event Initiating Blood Clotting

A

Tearing or puncturing of a blood vessel

70
Q

Purpose of Blood Clotting

A
  • Coagulation to prevent blood loss
  • Prevent pathogen entry
71
Q

Clotting Factor Absent in Hemophiliacs

A

8

72
Q

Blood Clotting Process (7 Steps)

A
  1. Injury exposes collagen fibers to blood
  2. Platelets stick to collagen fibers
  3. Platelets and damaged cells release clotting factors that initiate a cascade of reactions
  4. Clotting factors convert prothrombin to thrombin
  5. Thrombin hydrolyzes fibrinogen to fibrin
  6. Fibrin clot traps eryothrocytes
  7. Platelets become sticky to each other, clump together to form a platelet plug
73
Q

Inflammation Response Definition

A
  • Defense system for damage
  • The more severe the symptoms, the more pathogens have entered, the more leukocytes have arrived to kill them
74
Q

4 Symptoms of Inflammation Response

A

Pain, redness, heat, swelling

75
Q

3 Purposes of the Inflammation Response

A
  1. Destroy the cause of the infection
  2. Limit the effects on the body due to the infection
  3. Replacing and repairing tissue damaged by the infection
76
Q

Inflammation Response Process (5 Steps)

A
  1. Increased diameter (vasodilation) and permeability of blood vessels caused by histamine release
  2. Increaed blood flow to the injury site
  3. Increased mvoement of material into tissue spaces
  4. Phagocytic cells arrive and destroy microbes
  5. New tissue created to replace dead/damaged
77
Q

Artery

A
  • 3 layers
  • Thicker tunica media than in vein
  • Thick muscle and elastin fibers
  • No valves
  • Thicker walls with narrower lumens than veins
78
Q

Vein

A
  • Three layers
  • Thinner tunica media than in artery
  • Thinner muscle and elastin fibers than artery’s
  • Have valves
  • Thinner walls with larger lumens than arteries
  • Transport blood back from the tissue to the heart
  • Slower blood flow than in arteries
79
Q

Capillary

A
  • One layer of endothelial cells
  • No tunica media
  • No muscle or elastin fibers
  • No valves
  • Tiny lumen, one cell thick wall
  • Form a network between arteries and veins
  • Connection between arterioles and venules
  • Highly permeable to allow fast exchange of materials, oxygen and nutrients
  • Slow flowing blood to allow time for exchange
80
Q

4 Layers of Arteries and Veins

A

From inside out: endothelial layer, elastin layer, smooth muscle layer, connective tissue layer

81
Q

Tunica Intima

A
  • Innermost layer of the vein/artery
  • Direct contact with blood
  • Endothelium and inner elastic membrane
82
Q

Tunica Media

A
  • Thickest layer of vein/artery
  • Just the smooth muscle
83
Q

Tunica Adventitia

A
  • External elastic membrane and the connective tissue of vein/artery
  • Tough collagen fibers
84
Q

Arterioles

A
  • Smalelr arteries
  • Branch off in the body to supply blood to organs, limbs
  • Higher muscle density, more susceptible to hormonal and nervous control of vasoconstriction/dilation
85
Q

Skeletal Muscles and Veins

A

Skeletal muscles squeeze the veins to support flow, especially during exercise

86
Q

Valves in Veins and Skeletal Muscles

A
  • Valves open when muscles contract, allowing blood to return to the heart
  • Valves close when muscles relax, preventing backwards flow
87
Q

Cardiac Cycle (13 Steps)

A
  1. Oxygen poor blood enters the heart through the interior and superior vena cava
  2. Oxygen poor blood enters the right atrium
  3. The heart contracts, pushing blood from the right atrium into the right ventricle through the open tricuspid valve
  4. Once the ventricle is full, it begins to contract
  5. Increased blood pressure against the tricuspid forces it shut
  6. Contraction forces the blood to leave the heart through the pulmonary valve into the pumonary vein
  7. Blood flows to the lungs, where it is oxygenated
  8. Oxygenated blood carried to the left atrium by the pulmonary vein
  9. As the atrium contracts, blood flows from the left atrium to the left ventricle through the open bicuspid
  10. Once the ventricle fills, it begins to contract
  11. Increase in pressure forces the bicuspid to close
  12. As the ventricle contracts, blood leaves the heart through the aortic valve
  13. Oxygenated blood is distributed through the body
88
Q

Pulmonary Circulation

A

Right side of the heart

89
Q

Systemic Circulation

A

Left side of the heart

90
Q

Diastole

A

Cardiac muscle relaxes, blood pours into the ventricles through the AV valves. Lower pressure than systole

91
Q

Systole

A

Cardiac muscle contracts, pushing blood into the pulmonary and aortic valves. Higher pressure than diastole

92
Q

Myogenic

A

Generates its own contractions. The heart is myogenic

93
Q

Sound of AV Valves Closing

A

Lub

94
Q

Sound of Semilunar Valves Closing

A

Dub

95
Q

Regulation of Heart Rate 15 Steps

A
  1. Increased activity
  2. More oxygen consumed
  3. More carbon dioxide expelled
  4. Decreased pH as CO2 reacts with water to produce a hydrogen ion
  5. Decreased pH sensed by the cardiovascular center, sending impulses down the cardiac accelerator
  6. Signals sent to the SA node
  7. SA node sends electrical signal to initiate contraction
  8. Signal passes through interatrial septum to the AV node
  9. From the AV node, signal relayed through bundle of His (AV bundle) to the apex (ventricles meet)
  10. Signal spreads from the top to the ventricles through the Purkinje fibers
  11. Heart pumps faster
  12. More oxygen sent
  13. More carbon dioxide removed
  14. Increased pH
  15. Signals sent down vagus nerve
96
Q

Double Displacement Reaction of Carbon Dioxide and Water

A

CO2 + H2O ->H2CO3 -> H+ + HCO3-

97
Q

Defibrillator

A
  • Contracts everything at once, then stops the signal, hopefully jump starting the heart
  • Used when the heart stops or when the ventricles don’t work in synchronization
98
Q

Neurotransmitters

A

Chemicals that activate nerve cells and allow them to communicate with each other and with muscle cells

99
Q

Norepinephrine/noradrenaline and epinephrine/adrenaline

A

Stimulate the sympathetic nervous system, speed up heart, secreted by the medulla

100
Q

Acetylcholine

A

Stimulates parasympathetic nervous system, lowers heart rate

101
Q

Stroke Volume

A

Volume of blood pumped during each heartbeat

102
Q

Cardiac Output

A

Volume of blood pumped within a minute

103
Q

Stenosis

A

Narrowing of lumen, fatty deposits develop in the arteries. A cause of occlusions

104
Q

Occlusion Formation (7 Steps)

A
  1. Fatty deposits develop in the arteries
  2. Stenosis: lumen narrows
  3. Increase in pressure: restriced flow increases pressure in the artery, leading to damage to the arterial wall
  4. Decrease in elasticity: damaged artery repaired with fibrous tissue
  5. Plaque formation: smooth lining of the artery progressively degraded, lesions form
  6. Clot formation: blood clotting triggered by plaque ruptures, forming a thrombus, obstructing blood flow
  7. Embolus: dislodged thrombus, causing a blockage in an arteriole
105
Q

5 Consequences of Occlusions

A
  1. Arteriosclerosis
  2. Atherosclerosis
  3. Embolism
  4. Myocardial infarction
  5. Stroke
106
Q

Arteriosclerosis

A

Hardening of arteries

107
Q

Atherosclerosis

A

Hardening of arteries due to plaque build up

108
Q

Embolism

A

Blocking of artery

109
Q

Myocardial Infarction

A

Insufficient blood flow to the heart muscle from narrowing of the coronary artery. Plaque formation prevents oxygen and nutrients from being transported to the heart

110
Q

2 Treatments of Blockages of Coronary Arteries

A

By - pass surgery or balloon angioplasty

111
Q

Stroke

A

Blood clot stops blood flow in an artery in the brain

112
Q

Three Levels of the Immune System

A
  1. Protective layers
  2. Non - specific response
  3. Specific response
113
Q

Non - Specific (Innate Response)

A
  • No memory or lasting protective immunity
  • Primitive responses, limited collection of recognition molecules
114
Q

Specific Response (Acquired or Adaptive Immunity)

A
  • Antigen specificity allows for the generation of responses to target specific pathogens
  • Memory for previous pathogens
  • No limit to the collection of recognition
115
Q

Antigen

A

Any molecule that enters the body and triggers an immune response

116
Q

First Line of Defense from the Immune System

A
  • The skin: continuous layer preventing pathogens from entering without cuts
  • Sweat glands contain lysozymes, enzymes that digest bacterial cell walls
  • Mucous membranes lining all body cavities and canals that come in contact with the air contain goblet cells that trap pathogens
  • Cilia in the nose, throat and lungs glush potential pathogens either out of the body or into the stomach where the acids kill
117
Q

Non - Specific Response Process (5 Steps)

A
  1. Extravasation: phagocytic leukocytes move into body tissues
  2. Histamine released by site of infection, recognized by phagocytic leukocytes
  3. Endocytosis: pathogens engulfed as pseudopodia surround the pathogen and fuse, sequestering it in a vesicle
  4. Vesicle fused with lysosomes and phogosomes: pathogen broken into small fragments
  5. Some antigenic fragments presented on the surface of the macrophage to stimulate antibody production
118
Q

Specific Response Process

A
  1. B lymphocyte divides rapidly through mitosis (clonal selection)
  2. Clones become plasma cells, making and secreting large quantities of the antibody to circulate in the blood
  3. Antibodies produced can bind to antigen, allowing phagocytes to recognize then destroy it
  4. Antibodies produced can bind to proteins in the coat of a virus, preventing it from entering other human cells
  5. Some become memory cells, respond to the antigen if it re - enters
  6. Once the pathogens are killed, plasma cells undergo suicide
  7. Memory cells remain in the bloodstream and lymph nodes
119
Q

Lymphocyte

A

Type of leukocyte that responds to antigens

120
Q

B Lymphocyte

A

Type of lymphocyte that recognizes antigens through receptors

121
Q

Monoclonal Antibody Production (5 Steps)

A
  1. Antigens injected into the body
  2. Plasma cells produced
  3. Plasma cells fused with tumor cells
  4. Becomes a hybridoma, has the ability to reproduce rapidly while retaining the characteristics of the plasma cell
  5. Produces an endless supply of monoclonal antibodies
122
Q

3 Usages of Monoclonal Antibodies

A
  1. Diagnose presence of pathogens
  2. Pregnancy tests
  3. Treatment: potential to use to target cancer by delivering treatment specifically to those cells
123
Q

Pregnancy Test

A

Enzyme - linked immunosorbent assay

124
Q

Pregnancy Test (7 Steps)

A
  1. Urine dripped on exposed end of strip
  2. Fluid travels up absorbent fibers
  3. Antibodies (attached to enzymes that activate dye molecules) latch onto HCGs in the reaction zone
  4. More antibodies stick to HCGs in the test zone
  5. HCG sandwiched by a AB1 and AB2 enzyme; stick to the test zone, allowing the enzyme to activate dye molecules
  6. If there are no HCGs, the urine passes on
  7. Control zone confirms that the test is working properly, as unbound AB1 enzymes activate dye here
125
Q

HIV

A

Human immunodeficiency virus
- Retrovirus: RNA turned into DNA and combined with host’s DNA
- Causes symptoms called AIDS (acquired immuno -defiiency syndrome)

126
Q

HIV Infection (6 Steps)

A
  1. Infects a cell through the proteins on the surface of tis envelop, makes a DNA copy from its RNA helped by enzyme reverse transcriptase
  2. New DNA inserted into host cell’s genome
  3. Virus unddergoes period of inactivity: clinical latency: infected helper T lymphocytes reproduce
  4. Virus becomes active, spreads, destroys T lymphocytes: lysogenic cycle
  5. Antibodies not produced: decreased immunity
  6. Body vulnerable to infections
127
Q

HIV Transmission (3 Examples)

A

Exchange of body fluids: sex, blood transfusions, breastfeeding

128
Q

Characteristic of HIV Immunes

A

WIthout CD4+ receptor on T lymphocyte cells

129
Q

Treatment of HIV

A

Antiviral drugs that target reverse transcriptase activity

130
Q

Immunization

A

Use of a vaccine to provide recipient with artificially acquired immunity

131
Q

Immunity

A

Ability to fight off or resist a pathogen

132
Q

Natural Active Immunity

A

Disease procured naturally, by chance, causing the body to make antibodies and develop memory cells on its own. Occurs during infection

133
Q

Artificial Active Immunity

A

Artificial exposure that activte T and B cells to provide long lasting immunity

134
Q

Natural Passive Immunity

A

Getting antibodies from another source under natural settings. No memory cells developed, antibodies break down over time

135
Q

Example of Natural Passive Immunity

A

Mother to child through placenta or milk

136
Q

Artificial Passive Immunity

A

Instant but temporary, memory cells not created, e.g. injecting antitoxins to fight tetanus

137
Q

Whole Agent Vaccines

A

Live attenuated: live attenuated modified microorganism alive, but weakened. Able to replicate but cannot cause disease. Risk of infection when virus mutates back into active, virulent form but stronger.

Inactivated: kills microorganism, whole/pieces put into the vaccine, weak antigens, multiple doses for strong immune response. No risk of infection but weaker

138
Q

Subunit Vaccines

A
  • Contain antigens
  • Less likely to induce unfavorable immune reactions
139
Q

mRNA Vaccines

A
  • Introduction of mRNA sequence coding for a disease specific antigen into a host’s cell (T cell)
  • Antigen produced
  • Faster, cheaper, safer than whole agent and subunit vaccines

Biology (7 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions