Human structure and function Flashcards
(325 cards)
1
Q
What is the hip bone comprised of?
A
Ilium, pubis & ischium, which are fused together by adulthood with the sacrum and coccyx.
2
Q
Anterior superior iliac spine (ASIS) Attachments?
A
Sartorius and inguinal ligament.
3
Q
Anterior inferior iliac spine (AIIS) Origins?
A
Rectus femoris origin.
4
Q
Posterior superior iliac spine (PSIS)
A
Nothing attaches, marks where the sacroiliac joint (SIJ) is.
5
Q
Iliac crest
A
Runs between the ASIS & PSIS lots of muscles (mostly abdominals) and a ligament (the iliolumbar) attach.
6
Q
Pubic tubercle
A
The attachment of the inguinal ligament.
7
Q
Pubic crest
A
Between the pubic tubercle and the pubic symphysis attachment of the lower end of the rectus abdominis.
8
Q
Pubic symphysis
A
Cartilaginous (not synovial) joint between the two hip bones at the front. Has a few ligaments that make it a fixed (immobile) joint.
9
Q
Ischial tuberosity
A
The “sit bone” → has the hamstrings arise, and attachment of the sacrotuberous ligament.
10
Q
Ischial spine
A
Sacrospinous ligament and some muscles attach to it.
11
Q
Acetabulum
A
For the head of the femur (hip joint).
12
Q
Greater trochanter
A
Insertion of gluteus medius & minimus insertion of the lateral hip rotators.
13
Q
Lesser trochanter
A
Insertion of iliacus & psoas major (iliopsoas).
14
Q
Gluteal tuberosity
A
Insertion of part of gluteus maximus.
15
Q
Linea aspera
A
Insertion of the hip adductors.
16
Q
The interosseous sacroiliac, Sacrotuberous and the Sacrospinous ligament.
A
All help prevent the sacrum from nutating. These ligaments are all very very thick and tight → to stop extreme rotation.
17
Q
Pubic symphysis
A
The superior pubic ligament, the inferior (or arcuate) pubic ligament, the anterior pubic ligament, and the posterior pubic ligament.
18
Q
Ligaments of the hip joint
A
All (3) are capsular
- The iliofemoral: Stops extreme hip extension.
- The pubofemoral: Is below the joint axis, so gets tight and prevents extreme hip abduction.
- Acetabular labrum: Deepens and helps stabilise the hip joint.
- Ligament of the head of the femur: It does relatively little.
19
Q
Hamstrings
A
Long head of biceps femoris: Flexes the knee, extends the thigh, and rotates the lower leg from side-to-side when the knee is bent. Semitendinosus: Flexes the knee and extends the thigh.
Semimembranosus: Flexes the knee, extends the thigh, and offers medial rotation for the hip and lower leg.
20
Q
Hip flexion
A
Psoas major, iliacus, rectus femoris, sarorius, Tensor fasciae latae (TFL), pectineus.
21
Q
Hip extension
A
Gluteus maximus, hamstrings.
22
Q
Hip abduction
A
Gluteus medius & minimus, sartorius, TFL.
23
Q
Hip adduction
A
Mostly the hip adductors – pectineus, adductor longus & brevis, gracilis, adductor magnus.
24
Q
Hip lateral rotation
A
Gluteus maximus, sartorius, 6 hip lateral rotators.
25
Hip medial rotation
Psoas major & iliacus, TFL.
26
Popliteal fossa
The hollow area between the tendons.
27
Patellar surface (trochlea)
Patella slides up and down this during knee flexion-extension.
28
Medial condyle
Joins the medial tibial condyle at the knee joint.
29
Lateral condyle
Joins the lateral condyle of the tibia at the knee joint.
30
Medial epicondyle
The widest part of the knee medially. Flat surface.
31
Lateral epicondyle
The widest part of the knee laterally. Flat surface.
32
Lateral (fibular) collateral ligament
Prevents knee (leg) adduction.
33
Medial (tibial) collateral ligament
Prevents knee (leg) abduction.
34
Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL)
Stops tibia sliding forward relative to femur. This is also known as anterior draw.
35
Posterior cruciate ligament (PCL)
Stops tibia sliding backwards relative to femur. This is also known as posterior draw.
36
Medial and lateral menisci
Deepen the flat top surface of the tibia, increasing rotational stability.
37
Hip/Knee crossing muscles
Sartorius, Gracilis, Tensor fasciae latae & gluteus maximus → insert into the ITB → gurtus tubercle, Rectus femoris → The only 2 joint quadricep → knee extensor and hip flexor.
Semitendinosus, semimembranosus, & long head of biceps femoris (hamstrings) → flex the knee and extend the hip.
38
Popliteus
Unlock the knee.
39
3 tibiofibular joints
Proximal (just below knee), Middle (the interosseous membrane), The distal (or inferior),The medial surface of the tibia.
40
Ankle
Is a hinge joint (only plantar flexes and dorsiflexes) → The joint between the leg and the foot is the ankle joint (talocrural Joint).
41
Medial malleolus
Ankle lump on the tibia.
42
Lateral malleolus
Lateral ankle lump. On fibula.
43
Talar dome (trochlea)
Joins the leg bones (tibia & fibula) at the ankle joint.
44
Lateral Collateral Ligament Complex (LCL)
Stabilises the ankle against inversion- has 3 parts.
45
Medial Collateral Ligament Complex (Deltoid Ligament)
Stabilises the ankle against eversion - has 4 parts.
46
Muscles in the anterior leg (Which are all ankle dorsiflexors)
Tibialis anterior, Extensor hallucis longus, Extensor digitorum longus, Fibularis (peroneus) tertius
47
Gastrocnemius
Plantar flex ankle.
48
Soleus
Plantar flex ankle.
49
Tibialis posterior
Plantar flex ankle & invert foot
50
Flexor digitorum longus (FDL)
Plantar flex ankle & invert foot
51
Flexor hallucis longus (FHL)
Plantar flex ankle & invert foot
52
Plantaris → insignificant
Plantar flex ankle.
53
Tibialis anterior (TA)
Dorsiflex ankle & invert foot.
54
Extensor hallucis longus (EHL)
Dorsiflex ankle & invert foot.
55
Extensor digitorum longus (EDL)
Dorsiflex ankle.
56
Fibularis tertius
Dorsiflex ankle & evert foot.
57
Fibularis longus & fibularis brevis
Plantar flex ankle & evert foot.
58
Quadriceps
Rectus Femoris: Runs along the front of the thigh and is the only one that crosses both the hip and knee joints, acting as both a hip flexor and a knee extensor.
Vastus Lateralis: Located on the outer side of the thigh, it's a major knee extensor.
Vastus Medialis: Situated on the inner side of the thigh →knee extension and patellar stability.
Vastus Intermedius: Located deep to the rectus femoris and is another major knee extensor.
59
Function of red blood cells (RBC)
Transport oxygen from the lungs to body tissues and carry carbon dioxide from the tissues back to the lungs.
60
Function of white blood cells (WBC)
Defend the body against infection and disease by identifying and destroying pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, parasites, and abnormal cells.
61
Neutrophils
(60-70%) Destroy bacteria by phagocytosis (engulfing and digesting pathogens).
62
Eosinophils
Combat parasitic infections (digest parasitic worms that are too large to be phagocytised) contributes to allergic reactions.
63
Basophils
Release histamine (acts as a vasodilator and attracts other WBCs to inflamed sites) and other chemicals during allergic responses and inflammation.
64
Lymphocytes
Coordinate the adaptive immune response.
1. T- cells: Help activate other immune cells, and destroy virus infected cells.
2. B-cells: Create antibodies.
3. Natural Killer (NK) cells: Destroy tumours and virus infected cells.
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Monocytes
Perform phagocytosis and develop into macrophages and dendritic cells in tissues.
66
Tunica's of blood vessels
1. The hollow of the vessel is called the lumen.
2. Tunica intima: Endothelium lines the lumen of all vessels.Basement membrane outside the endothelium
3.Tunica media: Smooth muscle and sheets of elastin fibres.
4. Tunica externa/adventitia: Collagen fibres and elastin, protect and reinforce.
67
Plasma (55%)
1. Mainly water (90%).
2. Proteins → Albumin (60% ): Prevents blood vessel leakiness; Transporter of insoluble molecules. Globulins (36%) – Carries LDL (“good” cholesterol), Iron (Fe), and antibodies (infection). Fibrinogen (4%) – Blood coagulation (clotting).
3. Electrolytes → Help regulate nerve/muscle function, maintain pH and water balance. Sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, phosphate, bicarbonate.
4. Gases → Oxygen and carbon dioxide.
5 .Nutrients → Amino acids, vitamins, minerals, fats. Nitrogenous by-products (“Urea cycle”) → How we convert harmful ammonia into urea to excrete - Lactic acid, urea, creatinine.
6. Hormones → Endocrine hormones.
68
Blood cells (45%)
RBCs: are responsible for carrying oxygen from the lungs to the body's tissues and carrying carbon dioxide back to the lungs. They contain hemoglobin, a protein that binds to oxygen.
WBCs: Are part of the body's immune system and fight infection.
Platelets: Are cell fragments that help blood clot and stop bleeding. They stick to the lining of blood vessels and release substances that initiate the clotting process.
69
Superior and inferior vena cava
Superior vena cava → blood drains from the head and upper limbs and inferior drains from the abdomen and lower limbs into the right atrium.
70
Right & left atrium
Open chamber in the heart → can hold up to 30 ml of blood → fires to contract and squeeze blood into the ventricles.
71
Pulmonary semilunar valve
Is opened by the ventricles firing to contract together → creating pressure.
72
Right & left ventricle
The right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs for oxygenation, while the left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood throughout the body.
73
Tricuspid valve
Is one of the heart's four valves, located between the right atrium and right ventricle, ensuring blood flows in the correct direction, and preventing backflow.
74
Chordae tendineae
To prevent the valve leaflets from prolapsing back into the atria during ventricular contraction
75
Papillary muscles
contract during ventricular contraction to prevent the atrioventricular (AV) valves from prolapsing (inverting) back into the atria.
76
Trabeculae carneae
prevent blood from being suctioned back into the atria during ventricular contraction and to enhance the heart's pumping efficiency
77
The pulmonary trunk
transporting deoxygenated blood from the heart towards the lungs
78
Pulmonary arteries (2)
carry deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs
79
Pulmonary veins (4)
carrying oxygenated blood from the lungs back to the heart, specifically the left atrium.
80
The coronary sinus
Is the largest cardiac vein, collecting deoxygenated blood from the heart muscle and emptying into the right atrium, playing a vital role in cardiac venous drainage → is a venus structure.
81
lungs
lungs facilitate gas exchange, taking in oxygen from the air and releasing carbon dioxide
82
Fossa ovalis
A remnant of the foramen ovale, a fetal circulatory shunt that allows blood to bypass the lungs before birth.
83
The bicuspid valve
controls blood flow between the left atrium and the left ventricle of the heart.
84
Aorta
The largest artery in the body, responsible for carrying oxygen-rich blood from the heart to the rest of the body, originating from the left ventricle and branching into major arteries.
85
The left common carotid artery (LCCA)
is a major blood vessel that supplies blood to the head and neck
86
subclavian arteries
move oxygen-rich blood from your heart to your upper body.
87
Interventricular septum
the muscular and membranous wall that separates the right and left ventricles of the heart
88
Apex of the heart
the pointed, inferior tip of the heart, primarily formed by the left ventricle.
89
Coronary arteries (6)
Left Coronary Artery (LCA): supplying the left side of the heart.
Circumflex Artery: A branch of the LCA that supplies the left atrium and the posterior-lateral aspect of the left ventricle.
Anterior Interventricular Artery (LAD):
A branch of the LCA that supplies the anterior portion of the left ventricle and a portion of the interventricular septum.
Right Coronary Artery (RCA): The main artery supplying the right side of the heart.
Marginal Artery: Can be a branch of either the RCA (right marginal) or the Circumflex artery (left marginal).
Supplies the lateral portion of the heart.
Posterior Interventricular Artery (PDA): Supplies the posterior aspect of the heart, including the interventricular septum and the inferior wall of the left ventricle.
90
sequence of firing of the specialised electrical structures (SABRP)
1. Sinoatrial (SA) node Right atrium, pacemaker of the heart, initiates the electrical impulse
2. Atrioventricular (AV) node: Interatrial septum, Delays the impulse to allow atria to finish contracting before ventricles contract.
3. Bundle of His (Atrioventricular bundle): Upper part of the interventricular septum, Transmits the impulse from the AV node to the ventricles
4. Right and Left Bundle Branches, Interventricular septum, Carry impulses down either side of the septum toward the apex of the heart
5. Purkinje fibers: Walls of the ventricles, Rapidly conduct impulses throughout the ventricular myocardium, causing contraction
91
Depolarization
Is when the heart cells fire off an electrical signal to contract.
92
Repolarization
Happens when the cells recharge for the next beat.
93
The waves (P Q R S T) of an ECG:
P wave: Electrical depolarisation of the atria.
Q wave: Initial depolarisation of the interventricular septum.
R wave: Beginning of the QRS complex, which is the main depolarisation of the ventricles.
S wave: Final phase of ventricular depolarisation.
T wave: Repolarization of the ventricles.
94
ECG intervals and segments
PR interval:Time between start of P wave and start of QRS complex.
PR segment: Usually flat ECG line between end of P wave and the beginning of the QRS complex → It represents the time delay between atrial and ventricular activation.
QRS complex: Ventricular depolarisation.
ST segment: Flat ECG line between end of QRS complex and the beginning of the T wave → It represents the period between ventricular depolarisation and repolarisation.
QT interval: Time between start of Q wave and end of T wave.
95
The Allen test
Assesses collateral circulation to the hand, ensuring adequate blood flow if the radial artery is compromised, particularly before procedures like arterial puncture. It involves occluding both the radial and ulnar arteries, then releasing the ulnar artery to observe for rapid return of color to the hand.
96
An arterial anastomosis
connection between two or more arteries. It allows blood to flow from one artery to another, providing an alternate route for blood to reach tissues or organs if one pathway becomes blocked or narrowed.
97
Boyle's law
In the context of anatomy and breathing, Boyle's Law simply states that as the volume of a container (like the lungs) increases, the pressure inside decreases, and vice versa.
98
The nasal cavity
Is the air-filled space inside the nose, serving as the upper part of the respiratory tract, and it's divided into two passages by the nasal septum, with functions including breathing, filtering air, and smelling.
99
Nostrils
the two openings in your nose, are essential for breathing and smelling
100
esophagus
is a muscular tube that transports food and liquids from the mouth to the stomach. It does this through a process called peristalsis, where the muscles in the oesophagus squeeze and contract to move food downwards.
101
trachea
allow passage of inspired and expired air into and out of the lung.
102
Carnia of trachea
prevent choking. If an object is inhaled into the windpipe sensory nerve endings trigger the cough reflex.
103
Lungs
The right lung is larger and has three lobes, while the left lung is smaller and has two lobes to accommodate the heart.
104
Bronchus
Carry air to the lungs
105
Diaphram
Is a dome-shaped, musculotendinous sheet that separates the thoracic cavity (containing the heart and lungs) from the abdominal cavity and is the primary muscle of respiration and inhalation.
106
The soft palate
(muscular, back part), both playing crucial roles in speech, swallowing, and breathing.
107
The epiglottis
A leaf-shaped flap of cartilage in the throat, is crucial for preventing food and liquids from entering the trachea (windpipe) during swallowing, ensuring they instead pass down the esophagus to the stomach.
108
Cardiac notch
is on the lung to make room for the apex of the heart.
109
Auditory tube
equalize air pressure between the middle ear and the outside environment, preventing damage to the eardrum
110
vocal folds
primarily responsible for producing the sound of the voice. They vibrate when air from the lungs passes through, creating a sound that is then shaped and amplified by the vocal tract. Additionally, the vocal folds help protect the airway during breathing and swallowing.
111
Mandible (lower jaw)
biting, chewing, and handling food.
112
hyoid bone
is in the front of your neck. It supports your tongue and plays a key role in speaking and swallowing.
113
Genioglossus Muscle
Origin: Mandible, Function: Protrusion (sticking out) and depression of the tongue
114
Geniohyoid Muscle
Origin: Mandible, Function: Elevates and pulls forward the hyoid bone, aiding in swallowing and respiration
115
Intrinsic tongue muscles
Control the shape and form of the tongue, allowing for specific movements during speech and swallowing.
116
The thoracolumbar fascia (TLF)
Is a complex, multilayered structure of connective tissue in the lower back that separates the paraspinal muscles from the muscles of the posterior abdominal wall, playing a crucial role in load transfer, spinal stability, and posture.
117
hard palate
(bony, front part) playing crucial roles in speech, swallowing, and breathing.
118
Thoracic cavity
is a space inside your thorax that contains your heart, lungs and other organs and tissues.
119
Abdominopelvic
cavity that contains the stomach, liver, pancreas, spleen, gallbladder, kidneys, small intestine, and most of the large intestine.
120
The costal margin
Lower the ribs protecting abdominal organs like the liver and serving as an attachment point for the diaphragm.
121
xiphoid process
serves primarily as an attachment point for muscles and ligaments
122
The central tendon
attachment point for the diaphragm's muscle fibers.
123
The "pump handle" movement of breathing
Refers to the elevation of the sternum and associated ribs, increasing the anteroposterior diameter of the thorax, which is crucial for expanding the chest cavity during inhalation.
124
The "bucket handle effect"
Refers to the upward and outward movement of the lower ribs during inspiration (breathing in), which increases the transverse (side-to-side) diameter of the chest cavity.
125
Elastic recoil
is the lungs' natural ability to spring back to their original shape after being stretched during inhalation. During exhalation, this recoil compresses the lungs, passively pushing air out without the need for muscle effort.
126
Rib elevators
Pectoralis minor, Serratius anterior, Quadratus lumborum, External intercostals, Scalenes, Sternocleidomastoid .
127
Rib depresses
transversus thoracis and subcostalis, Serratus posterior inferior.
128
Abdominal flexes
Rectus abdominis, linea alba, External oblique, Internal oblique
129
Abdominal lateral flexes
External and internal oblique
130
Transversus abdominis
compresses the abdomiopelvic contents.
131
Alveoli
facilitate gas exchange by allowing oxygen to move from inhaled air into the blood and carbon dioxide to move from the blood into the alveoli for exhalation.
132
The erector spinae muscles (longissimus, iliocostalis, and spinalis)
acting as accessory muscles of breathing, particularly during increased respiratory demands or when the primary respiratory muscles are weakened.
133
Cervical curve
Type: Secondary, Direction: Convex, Development: Forms when an infant begins to lift their head (around 3–4 months).
134
Thoracic curve
Type: Primary, Direction: Concave, Development: Present at birth (fetal position).
135
Lumbar Curve
Type: Secondary, Direction: Convex, Development: Forms when a child begins to sit and stand (around 8–12 months).
136
Sacral Curve
Type: Primary, Direction: Concave, Development: Present at birth; fuses during adolescence.
137
Vertebral body
attaches at the intervertebral joint to the vertebra above and below it.
138
pedicle
connecting the vertebral body to the rest of the vertebra. They form the sides of the vertebral arch and play a crucial role in protecting the spinal cord, supporting the body, and providing attachment points for muscles and ligaments.
139
lamina
in the spine are part of the vertebral arch and serve to protect and support the spinal cord. They form the roof of the spinal canal, a bony tunnel that surrounds the spinal cord. The laminae also provide attachment points for muscles and ligaments.
140
Transverse processes
serve to attach muscles and ligaments that stabilize and move the vertebral column, acting as levers for spinal movements. They also help protect spinal nerves as they exit the vertebral column.
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spinous process
serve as crucial attachment points for muscles and ligaments, facilitating movement, posture, and stability. They also act as levers for muscle action, enabling various spinal movements like extension and rotation.
142
vertebral foramen
Is the opening in a vertebra that allows for the passage of the spinal cord and associated structures.
143
vertebral canal
houses and protects the spinal cord and spinal nerve roots.
144
superior and inferior articular processes
bony projections on each vertebra that form joints with adjacent vertebrae. These joints, known as facet joints
145
superior and inferior vertebral notches
serves as part of the structure that forms the intervertebral foramen. This foramen provides a passageway for spinal nerves, meningeal nerves, and blood vessels to and from the spinal cord.
146
intervertebral foramina
Provide a passageway for spinal nerves and blood vessels to exit and enter the vertebral canal.
147
Zygapophyseal joints (facet joints)
are synovial joints in the spine that connect the superior and inferior articular processes of adjacent vertebrae. They play a crucial role in spinal mobility and stability.
148
The C1 vertebra (atlas)
lacks a body and a spinous process, instead it has a posterior tubercle. It is ring-shaped and forms the atlanto-occipital joint with the skull, enabling head nodding and flexion/extension.
149
The atlanto-odontoid joint
pivot joint in the upper cervical spine, connecting the atlas (C1) and the axis (C2) vertebrae. It's a crucial joint for head rotation, enabling about 40-70% of the cervical spine's rotational movement.
150
Sacrum
5 “typical vertebrae” just fused together.
151
coccyx
4 fused vertebrae.
152
Flexion & Extension
Flexion: Bending forward
Extension:Bending backward
Plane: Sagittal, Axis: Mediolateral
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Lateral Flexion (Right and Left)
Bending the trunk to the side, Plane: Frontal (Coronal), Axis: Anteroposterior
154
Rotation (Right and Left)
Twisting the spine along its long axis, Plane: Transverse (Horizontal), Axis: Vertical (Longitudinal)
155
Lumbopelvic rhythm
refers to the coordinated movement between the lumbar spine and the pelvis, particularly during trunk flexion and extension.
156
zygapophyseal joints
direction the zygapophyseal joints face largely determines the main types and ROMs of the motion segments of different regions of the vertebral column (VC).
157
Major ligaments
typical vertebra include the anterior and posterior longitudinal ligaments, ligamentum flavum, interspinous ligaments, and the supraspinous ligament. These ligaments play a crucial role in stabilizing the spine, supporting the vertebral bodies, and allowing for movement → limit spinal extension.
158
membrana tectoria
stabilize the head and limits movement. It's a continuation of the posterior longitudinal ligament, contributing to the stability of the atlanto-axial joint.
159
nuchal ligament
located in the posterior neck region, extending from the external occipital protuberance on the skull to the spinous process of the seventh cervical vertebra (C7). It supports the head and neck, limiting excessive flexion and serving as an attachment point for several muscles → stores potential elastic energy.
160
Pelvic floor/ diaphragm muscles
Pubocoxegious, iliococcygeus, ischiococcygeus.
161
Function of the pelvic floor
supporting the pelvic viscera and providing continence. They act as a "floor" for the abdominal organs, including the rectum, and help control urination and defecation.
162
puborectalis
It forms a sling around the rectum, pulling it forward to create the anorectal angle, During rest, the puborectalis remains contracted, maintaining this angle to prevent involuntary passage of stool. During defecation, it relaxes, allowing the anorectal angle to straighten and the rectum to open for stool to pass.
163
(Thoracic) Diaphragm
Function: Separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominopelvic cavity; major muscle of respiration, Structure: Dome-shaped muscle, Openings: For the esophagus, aorta, and inferior vena cava
164
Abdominal Wall
muscles enclose and support the abdominal organs, help with trunk movement, and assist in functions like breathing, childbirth, coughing, and defecation.
Main Muscles (from superficial to deep): External Oblique (EO): outermost; fibers run downward and medially.
Internal Oblique (IO): fibers run upward and medially
Transversus Abdominis (TA): deepest; fibers run horizontally
Rectus Abdominis (RA) : vertical strap muscle on the front of the abdomen]
165
Abdominopelvic cavity walls
The combined functions of the three abdominopelvic cavity walls Are to protect internal organs, support the abdominal and pelvic contents, and assist in movements such as trunk flexion, rotation, and posture stabilization. They also play a key role in intra-abdominal pressure regulation, which aids in functions like breathing, urination, defecation, and childbirth.
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Abdominopelvic cavity walls
muscles in the pelvic floor and anterior abdominal wall must fire but must relax the thoracic diaphragm to force things out of the mouth.
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Abdominopelvic cavity walls
To force things out of the rectus or vagina then you fire the thoracic wall and the anterior abdominal wall and relax the pelvic floor.
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Cardiac sphincter
The upper opening (entrance) of the stomach. Can contract to close the opening.
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Stomach
Mechanically and chemically digests food.
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Pyloric sphincter
The exit opening of the stomach. It controls the rate at which stomach contents flow into the small intestine. Stops backflow of these contents into the stomach.
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Liver
The largest gland of the body. Filters blood, helps metabolism, extracts and stores toxins, stores glycogen and vitamins, and produces bile.
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Gall bladder
Stores bile, and releases it into the duodenum via the bile duct.
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Pancreas
Gland that produces many hormones and enzymes. It empties
via pancreatic duct into the duodenum.
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Duodenum
The first 25cm or so of the small intestine. Has many (ducts
of) glands flowing into it. Is retroperitoneal.
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Jejunum
Middle part of the small intestine.
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Ilieum
The last part of the small intestine. Joins the large intestine at the ilieocaecal valve.
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Caecum
The start of the large intestine (the lower end of the ascending
colon).
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(Vermiform) appendix:
Vestigial organ.
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Colon
The rest of the large intestine. It mostly reabsorbs water. Also forms stools, peristaltically moves contents along the tract, and
contains bacteria.
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Rectum
Stores and eliminates faeces.
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Anus
A smooth-muscle sphincter and a skeletal-muscle sphincter keep it
closed, except when eliminating faeces.
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Spleen
An organ of lymphatic tissue. Defends body against invaders.
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Kidneys
Produce urine. Are retroperitoneal.
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Ureters
Transport urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder.
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Sexual organs
Many of these are also contained within the abdominopelvic cavity.
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Retroperitoneal organs
offers organ mobility, protection, and functional efficiency in the abdominal cavity.
S: Suprarenal glands (adrenal glands)
A: Aorta / Inferior vena cava
D: Duodenum (2nd and 3rd parts)
P: Pancreas (except the tail)
U: Ureters
C: Colon (ascending and descending only)
K: Kidneys
E: Esophagus (abdominal portion)
R: Rectum (partially)
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intraperitoneal organs
suspended in mesentery, allowing greater mobility and vascular access for complex digestive and absorptive functions.
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Arterial Supply of the Gut
Foregut: Celiac trunk, Midgut: Superior Mesenteric Artery (SMA), Hindgut: Inferior Mesenteric Artery (IMA).
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Heptic portal vein
gastrointestinal tract (GIT) has many veins that drain blood into the hepatic portal vein. This drains
the blood into the liver, which filters the blood, and blood then leaves the liver through hepatic veins into the inferior vena cava.
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Posterior superior iliac spine (PSIS)
distinct bump at the very back of the
iliac crest. It is just lateral to the skin
dimples of venus.
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C7-T1 spinous processes
large distinct bump at the lower end of your cervical spine.
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Function of the PNS
1. Sensory input: Information gathered by sensory receptors about internal and external changes
2. Integration: Interpretation of sensory input → body considers what to do.
3. Motor output: Activation of effector organs (muscles and glands) produces a response.
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dorsal root
Contain sensory (afferent) fibers.
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ventral root
Contain motor (efferent) fibers.
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dorsal root ganglion
a cluster of nerve cell bodies located on the dorsal side of the spinal cord, where sensory nerves from the body join the spinal cord
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white and grey rami communicans
branches that link the spinal nerves to the sympathetic trunk, facilitating communication within the sympathetic nervous system.
197
dorsal primary ramus
Supplies the posterior part of the body. Mixed nerve
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ventral primary ramus
Supplies the anterior part of the body. Mixed nerve
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white matter in the spine
found on the outside of the spinal cord, surrounding the central grey matter.
200
grey matter in the spine
Grey matter receives sensory information from the body and relays motor commands from the brain to the body.
201
functional effects of a nerve lesion
If all muscles for an action are denervated, the action is lost; if some are lost, it's weakened; if none are affected, the action remains normal.
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plexi (4)
Cervical Plexus: Supplies neck and diaphragm, Brachial Plexus: Supplies the upper limb, Lumbar Plexus: Supplies anterior and medial thigh, Sacral Plexus: Supplies posterior thigh, leg, and foot
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Reflex Arc
Rapid involuntary reprogrammed response that activates muscles/glands helping to avoid damage (bypassing the brain).
Receptor → sensory neuron (afferent) → Interneuron neuron → Motor neuron (efferent) → effector (muscle).
204
Somatic (voluntary) nervous system
Conscious control of skeletal muscles.
205
Autonomic (involuntary) nervous system
Visceral motor nerve fibers.
205
Sympathetic
Mobilizes the body during activity; is the “fight-or-flight” system.
206
Parasympathetic
Promotes maintenance activities and conserves body energy.
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Neuons V.S Neuroglia
are the functional cells responsible for sending signals. are the supportive cells that maintain the environment for neurons and help with repair, insulation, and immune defense.
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cerebellum
balance and coordination of movement.
209
Grey matter
Cell bodies, unmyelinated and myelinated axons
210
White matter
myelinated axons
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Gyri & Sulci
gyri is a ridge on the cerebral cortex → they are separated by sulci.
212
Frontal lobe
located at the front of the brain, it's responsible for higher-level cognitive functions like planning, decision-making, problem-solving, voluntary movement, and aspects of language (personality).
213
parietal lobe
behind the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe processes sensory information, including touch, temperature, pain, and spatial awareness, as well as integrating information from different senses.
214
Temporal lobe
sides of the brain, the temporal lobe plays a crucial role in auditory processing, memory formation, and some aspects of language comprehension.
215
Occipital lobe
back of the brain, the occipital lobe is the primary visual processing center, responsible for interpreting visual information, including color, shape, and movement.
216
Brain stem
Controls the heart and lung and plays a vital role in basic attention, arousal, and consciousness. (Medulla, Pons, midbrain)
217
Cerebrum
initiates and coordinates movement and regulates temperature. (Largest part of the brain)
218
Brains ventricals
contain cerebrospinal fluid → produced by the choroid plexus in the roof of the ventricles → surrounds the brain and spinal cord, providing cushioning and buoyancy → brain floats.
219
CSF
The arachnoid granulations returns CSF from this space into the venous system (sagittal sinus).
220
Venous sinuses
drain deoxygenated blood from the brain which then flows into the jugular vein
221
Circle of willis
network of arteries at the base of the brain that connects the major arterial supplies, providing a crucial collateral pathway to ensure blood flow to the brain, even if one of the main arteries is blocked.
222
Superior v.s Inferior
Superior: Toward the head or upper part of the body
Inferior: Away from the head; toward the lower part
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Proximal v.s distal
Proximal: Closer to the point of attachment or origin
Distal: Farther from the point of attachment or origin
224
Anterior v.s posterior
Anterior (ventral): Toward the front
Posterior (dorsal): Toward the back
225
Dorsal v.s ventral
Dorsal: Back side (also used for the top of the foot or hand)
Ventral: Belly side
226
plantar v.s dorsal (foot)
Plantar: Bottom of the foot
Dorsal (of foot): Top of the foot
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palmar v.s dorsal (hand)
Palmar: Palm side of the hand
Dorsal (of hand): Back of the hand
228
superficial v.s deep
Superficial: Closer to the surface
Deep: Further away from the surface
229
Radial v.s ulnar
Radial: Toward the radius (lateral/thumb side of forearm)
Ulnar: Toward the ulna (medial/little finger side)
230
Tibial vs fibular
Tibial: Toward the tibia (medial/big toe side)
Fibular: Toward the fibula (lateral/little toe side)
231
lateral v.s medial
Lateral: Away from the midline
Medial: Toward the midline
232
ipsilateral – Contralateral
Ipsilateral: On the same side
Contralateral: On the opposite side
233
Visceral – Parietal
Visceral: Relating to the internal organs (covers the organs)
Parietal: Relating to the body wall (lines the cavity)
234
Dorsiflexion v.s plantar flexion
dorsiflexion is extension of the ankle.
And plantar flexion is flexion of the ankle.
235
Flexion v.s extenstion
Flexion decreases the angle between two bones while extension increases the angle
236
Pronation v.s supernation
Pronation is the inward roll. Supination is the outward roll
237
Abduction v.s adduction
movement of a limb towards the body's midline, while abduction is the movement of a limb away from the body's midline
238
Axial skeleton
Skull, Mandible (jaw), Hyoid bone, Vertebral column:Cervical vertebrae (7), Thoracic vertebrae (12),Lumbar vertebrae (5). Sacrum, Coccyx, Ribs (12 pairs), Sternum (manubrium, body, xiphoid process)
239
Appendicular skeleton
Clavicle, Scapula, Humerus, Radius, Ulna, Metacarpals, Phalanges (fingers and toes), Pelvis (Ilium, Ischium, Pubis), Femur, Patella, Tibia, Fibula, Metatarsals
240
Movable body segments
Head and Neck, Shoulder (Glenohumeral), Elbow, Forearm (Radioulnar), Wrist, Fingers, Trunk (Spine and Thorax), Hip, Knee, Ankle, Toes
241
Sagittal plane
mediolateral axis, almost all flexion-extensions.
Transverse (or horizontal) plane – vertical (longitudinal) axis – almost all rotations.
242
Coronal plane
anteroposterior axis , almost all abduction-adductions.
243
Transverse plane
vertical (longitudinal) axis, almost all rotations.
244
Scapulohumeral rhythm
The coordinated movement of the scapula and humerus when you elevate your shoulder.
245
Movements of the scapula
elevation, depression, protraction (abduction), retraction (adduction), upward rotation, and downward rotation.
246
sternoclavicular (SC) joint
medial end of the clavicle joins the sternum
247
acromioclavicular (AC) joint
lateral end of the clavicle joins the acromion process
248
Greater tuberosity
insertion for supraspinatus, infraspinatus and teres minor
249
Lesser tuberosity
insertion site for subscapularis
250
Bicipital groove
for the tendon of long head of biceps
251
Head of the humerus and glenoid cavity
Head of the humerus and scapula join each other at the shoulder
(glenohumeral) joint
252
Coracoid process
attachment site for 3 muscles and 4 ligaments
253
Scapular spine
insertion of trapezius and origin for posterior head of deltoid
254
Vertebral border of scapula
insertion of rhomboids
255
Inferior angle of scapula
origin of teres major
256
acromion process
Origin of deltois, insertion for trapezius and attachment of caracoamial ligament
257
Rotator cuff muscles
supraspinatus, infraspinatus, subscapularis, and teres minor.
258
Superglenoid tubercle
origin of long head of biceps brachii
259
Costal tuberosity
Attachments of cosoclavicular ligament
260
Intraglenoid tubercle
Origins of the long head of triceps brachii
261
coracoclavicular ligament
Conoid – rotates clavicle posteriorly
Trapezoid – transmits compression from the scapula to the clavicle, thus bypassing the acromioclavicular joint
262
Acromioclavicular ligament
thickenings of joint capsule above and below, limiting elevation and depression of the scapula
263
Intra-articular disc of the sternoclavicular joint
stops clavicle dislocating medially
264
Costoclavicular ligament
limits extreme clavicular elevation
265
Coracoacromial ligament
Protects shoulder joint from above.
266
Coracohumeral ligament
limits extreme humeral adduction
267
Glenohumeral ligament
limits extreme humeral external rotation
268
Sternocleidomastoid
elevates clavicle
269
Trapezius
retracts scapula
- upper fibres elevate scapula
- lower fibres depress scapula
- upper & lower fibres help upwardly rotate scapula
270
Pectoralis major
adducts and internally rotates humerus protracts scapula
271
Pectoralis minor
protracts & depresses scapula
272
Serratus anterior
protracts scapula lowest part depresses & helps upwardly rotate scapula
273
Levator scapulae
elevates and helps downwardly rotate scapula
274
Rhomboids
retract and help downwardly rotate scapula
275
Latissimus dorsi
extends, adducts & internally rotates humerus
276
Deltoid
abducts humerus
277
Teres major
extends, adducts & internally rotates humerus
278
Biceps brachii
flexes humerus
279
Triceps brachii
extends humerus.
280
Bursae
located between where a tendon or a ligament slides on and is pressed against a bony part. They emit some of the fluid so that the sliding is friction-free, and stops the ligament or tendon from becoming inflamed because of friction between it and the bone.
281
Olecranon process of the ulna
insertion of triceps brachii
282
Coronoid process of the ulna
insertion of brachialis
283
Head of the radius
joins the capitulum
284
Trochlea
joins the trochear notch of the ulna (elbow joint)
285
Radial fossa
for the head of the radius in full elbow flexion. Increases range of motion.
286
Coronoid fossa
for the coronoid process of the ulna in full elbow flexion. Increases range of motion.
287
Olecranon fossa
for the olecranon process of the ulna in full elbow extension. Increases range of motion
288
Medial humeral epicondyle
origin of many muscles whose belly is in the front of the forearm
289
Lateral humeral epicondyle
origin of many muscles whose belly is in the back of the forearm
290
radial tuberosity
insertion of biceps brachii
291
lateral collateral ligament
prevents extreme forearm (radius and ulna) adduction
292
medialal collateral ligament
prevents extreme forearm (radius and ulna) abduction
293
Annular ligament
holds the head of the radius in place so it rotates during forearm
Pronation-supination.
294
Elbow flexion
biceps brachii, brachialis, brachioradialis
295
Elbow extension
triceps brachii
296
Forearm pronation
pronator teres & pronator quadratus
297
Forearm supination
biceps brachii & supinator
298
superficial muscles in the front of the forearm
flexor carpi radialis (FCR), palmaris longus, flexor digitorum superficialis (FDS), and flexor carpi
ulnaris (FCU)
299
deep anterior forearm
flexor digitorum profundus (FDP),
flexor pollicis longus (FPL), and pronator quadratus (PQ).
300
back of the forearm
brachioradialis, extensor carpi
radialis longus (ECRL), extensor carpi radialis brevis (ECRB), extensor digitorum (ED), extensor
digiti minimi (EDM) and extensor carpi ulnaris (ECU). T
301
distal in the back of the forearm
extensor indicis (EI) and three thumb muscles extensor pollicis longus (EPL), extensor pollicis brevis
(EPB), and abductor pollicis longus (APL).
302
thenar eminence
abductor pollicis brevis (APB), flexor pollicis brevis (FPB) and opponens pollicis (OP).
303
hypothenar eminence
abductor digiti minimi (ADM), flexor digiti minimi (FDM) and opponens digiti minimi (ODM). Identify
adductor pollicis (AP).lumbrical (there are 4), a palmar interosseous
304
Wrist flexion
mostly Flexor carpi ulnaris (FCU) & flexor carpi radialis (FCR)
304
Wrist extension
mostly extensor carpi radialis longus and brevis (ECRL & ECRB) & extensor carpi ulnaris
305
Wrist ulnar deviation
flexor and extensor carpi ulnaris (FCU & ECU).
306
Wrist radial deviation
flexor carpi radialis (FCR) and ECRL & ECRB.
307
Metacarpophalangeal (MCP) extension
Extensor digitorum (ED), extensor digiti minimi (EDM & extensor indicis (EI).
308
MCP flexion
mostly flexor digitorum profundus (FDP) and superficialis (FDS)
309
MCP abduction
dorsal interossei
310
MCP adduction
palmar interossei
311
PIP flexion
FDS & FDP
312
DIP flexion
FDP
313
PIP and DIP extension
lumbricals and interossei
314
Thumb flexion (all joints)
flexor pollicis longus (FPL)
315
Thumb extension
muscles of the anatomical snuffbox – EPL EPB APL
316
CN1 (Olfactory nerve)
olfactory system and sense of smell.
317
CN2 (Optic nerve)
visual system, acting as a pathway between the eye and the brain.
318
CN3, 4, & 6 ( Oculomotor, Trochlear, & Abducens)
Are responsible for controlling eye movements and pupil dilation (motor nerves).
319
CN 5 (Trigeminal)
Responsible for sensation in the face (inside and outside) and motor functions like chewing.
320
CN7 (Facial)
controlling facial muscles for expression, conveying taste sensations from the anterior two-thirds of the tongue, and regulating secretions from glands like the lacrimal and salivary glands.
321
CN 8 (Vestibulocochlear)
2 nerves → 1 goes to the Vestibular apparatus which is about balance and the other goes to the cochlear which is about hearing.
322
CN 9 10 & 11 (Glossopharyngeal, Vagus, and Accessory)
play crucial roles in sensory, motor, and parasympathetic functions of the head and neck.
323
