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IMMS Flashcards

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1
Q

Label

A
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2
Q

Where does krebs cycle occur?
Where does electron transport occur?
Where does ATP synthesis occur?

A

Matrix
Cristae
Inner membrane

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3
Q

What occurs in matrix?
What occurs in cristae?
What occurs inner membrane?

A

Matrix- krebs
Electron transport- cristae
ATP synthesis- inner membrane

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4
Q

Function mitochondria?

A

Site respiration and ATP formation

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5
Q

Function ribosomes?

A

Site protein synthesis

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6
Q

Function rough ER?

A

Synthesis and process proteins

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7
Q

Function smooth ER?

A

Enzymes for lipid synthesis

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8
Q

Function golgi apparatus?

A

Process and package proteins

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9
Q

Function cytoskeleton?

A

Structural support

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10
Q

Function nucleus?

A

Genetic info and make ribosomal subunits

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11
Q

Function lysosomes?

A

Acid hydrolases for digestion and recycling

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12
Q

Function peroxisomes?

A

FA oxidation
Contain catalse

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13
Q

Label

A
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14
Q

What is cell membrane made of?

A

Phospholipid bilayer
Contain:
Cholesterol
Proteins
Glycolipids and glycoproteins

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15
Q

Function of cell membrane? (4)

A

1) Partially permeable membrane
2) Site membrane receptors
3) Regulate what enter and exit cells
4) Barrier seperate intracellular content from extracellular contents

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16
Q

What does phospholipid contain?

A

Hydrophilic polar head- phosphate, glycerol
Hydrophobic non-polar fatty acid tail

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17
Q

What are 2 types membrane proteins?

A

Integral
Peripheral

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18
Q

Name 3 types integral proteins?

A

1) a helix- recognition receptor
2) Helical bundle- enzymes, transporter receptor
3) Beta barrel- transporter- channel proteins

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19
Q

Name 2 types peripheral proteins?

A

1) Enzymes
2) Transporter

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20
Q

Give 3 ways that movement across membranes occurs?

A

1) Simple diffusion
Passive movement particles from region high to low concentration through partially permeable membrane
Small, non-polar

2) Facilitated diffusion
Transport particles through partially permeable membrane down conc gradient by carrier molecule
Large, polar

3) Active transport
Transport particles against conc gradient- require ATP
Proteins, ions, complex sugars

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21
Q

Define homeostasis?

A

Maintenance of constant internal environment

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22
Q

Define positive and negative feedback?

A

Positive- amplification of signal
Negative- bring back equilbrium

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23
Q

List 4 types of signaling?

A

1) Autocrine
2) Paracrine
3) Endocrine
4) Exocrine

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24
Q

Autocrine- where secreted, where act?
Paracrine- where secreted, where act?
Endocrine- where secreted, where act?
Exocrine- where secreted, where act?

A

Autocrine- cell secrete chemical/hormone into ECF
- act on self
- progesterone
Paracrine- secrete and travel ECF- adj cell
- local cell comm ACh at NMJ
Endocrine- secrete into blood
- long distance signalling
- insulin
Exocrine- secretion via ducts into organs
- salivary and sweat

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25
Give example negative feedback?
Regulation blood calcium lvl
26
Give example positive feedback?
Oxytocin- childbirth Clotting factors- coagulation
27
What are 2 main types hormones?
Steroid Peptide
28
What steroid hormones derived from? Are steroid hormones stored? Slow or fast Example
Steroid hormones derived from cholesterol Formed when needs- not stored Slow acting Cortisol
29
What peptide hormones derived from? Are peptide hormones stored? Slow or fast? Example
Peptide hormones derived from amino acids 3-20 Stored secretary vesicles Fast acting
30
What amine hormones derived from?
Amino acids- 2 Fast Stored Adrenaline
31
State 4 ways water is controlled?
1) ADH 2) Thirst 3) Aldosterone 4) Sympathetic ns
32
What releases ADH?
Posterior pituitary
33
Does ADH increase or decrease water reabsorption?
Increase water reabsorption in collecting ducts in nephrons of kidney
34
State one effect aldosterone?
Allow sodium move into blood- increase blood volume
35
What does arteriole do in response low water conc?
Neurotransmitters from sympathetic nerves in kidney stimulate smooth muscle in afferent arteriole constrict Less urine formation Renin release
36
If aldosterone present is more or less potassium excreted?
More potassium
37
What decreases blood calcium?
Calcitonin
38
Name 2 factors increase blood calcium?
PTH Calcitriol
39
Draw water distribution 70kg male?
40
Define hypotonic?
Overhydration
41
Define hypertonic?
Deydration
42
List 3 symptoms overhydration?
Cells swell- cell lysis Headaches, coma Death
43
List 3 effects dehydration?
Seizures Brain damage Death
44
State formation Maltose Sucrose Lactose
Glucose + Glucose= Maltose Glucose + Fructose= Sucrose Glucose + Galactose= Lactose
45
What bond joins glucose and glucose?
Glycosidic
46
What joins amino acids?
Peptide bonds
47
What type of reaction joins amino acids?
Condensation reaction
48
Is carboxyl group positive or negative?
Carboxyl- +ve Amino- -ve
49
How many amino acids exist?
20
50
Define Primary Secondary Tertiary Quaternary Proteins?
Primary- linear sequence amino acids Secondary- local folding alpha helix, beta pleated Tertiary- 3D folding due chain interactions Quaternary- protein more one amino acid chain
51
Where does electron transport chain occur?
Cristae of mitochondria
52
What is function golgi apparatus?
Process and package proteins
53
Describe phospholipids property?
Polar, hydrophilic head Non-polar hydrophobic tail
54
How large polar molecules transported across membranes
Facilitated diffusion
55
What kind signaling used long distance signalling?
Endocrine
56
Name mechanism water homeostasis?
ADH, thirst, aldosterone, sympathetic ns
57
What effect of aldosterone on sodium and potassium?
Increased reabsorption sodium Increased excretion potassium
58
How many amino acids are there?
20
59
Outline how many calories? Carbohydrates Protein Alcohol Lipid
Carbohydrate- 4kcal/g Protein- 4kcal/g Alcohol- 7kcal/g Lipid- 9kcal/g
60
Define BMR?
Amount energy needed keep body alive at rest 1kcal/kg body mass/hr
61
State 5 things that increase BMR?
1) High BMI 2) Hyperthyroidism 3) Fever/infection 4) Pregnancy 5) Exercise
62
State 4 things decrease BMR?
1) Ageing 2) Female 3) Starvation 4) Hypothyroidism
63
What process breaks down glucose to release enrgy?
Glycolysis
64
Where does glycolysis occur?
Take place cytosol`
65
State glycolysis equation?
66
What occurs to pyruvate that is produced from glycolysis? Aerobic Anaerobic
Aerobic- pyruvate enter citric acid cycle - undergo oxidative phosphorylation Anaerobic- pyruvate convert lactate
67
How much ATP generated in aerobic glycolysis? How much ATP generated in anaerobic glycolysis?
Aerobic- 38ATP Anaerobic- 2ATP
68
Where does Krebs cycle occur (citric acid cycle)?
Mitochondrial matrix
69
Draw Krebs cycle?
70
What is rate limiting step?
Isocitrate converted alpha-ketoglutarate
71
What is rate limiting step enzyme in krebs?
Isocitrate dehydrogenase
72
What is responsible for FA oxidation?
Peroxisomes break down FA
73
What is produced during high rates fatty acid oxidation?
Acetyl coA- exceed krebs
74
What is pyruvate from glycolysis converted into?
Pyruvate converted into acetyl coA
75
Define ketogenesis?
Ketone bodies made in mitochondrial matrix from acetyl coA (generated in beta oxidation)
76
Give examples of ketones?
Acetone Acetoacetate
77
Can liver use ketones?
No
78
What muscles can use ketones?
Skeletal muscles
79
Structure DNA?
Double helix structure
80
What are nucleotides composed of?
Nitrogenous base + sugar + phosphate
81
Give 2 examples of purine? What is it?
Adenine Guanine 2 carbon-nitrogen
82
Give 2 examples of pyrimidine? What is it?
Thymine Cytosine 1 carbon-nitrogen
83
Two types of sugar in nucleotides?
Ribose (RNA) Deoxyribose (DNA)
84
What is coding section of gene?
Exon
85
What is non-coding section of gene?
Intron
86
State DNA mutation?
Duplication Deletion Substitution
87
Define Out of frame mutation In frame mutation
Out of frame- one base deleted- shift sequence BIG ISSUE In frame- complete codon deleted- milder
88
Is out of frame or in frame mutation more dangerous?
Out of frame Shift reading sequence
89
State 3 forms DNA damage?
Chemicals UV Radiation
90
Define missense mutation?
Single nucleotide change results in codon coding for diff amino acid Lead silent mutation
91
Define nonsense mutation?
Point mutation produces stop codon- incomplete protein
92
Explain expansion of tri-nucleotide repeat? Example?
Triple repeat repeated svl times in first part of coding seq Normal- 15-20 Huntingtons CAG- greater 36 Anticipation- more repeats- earlier onset pass generation
93
Name 3 types RNA?
Messenger mRNA Ribosomal rRNA Transfer tRNA
94
State DNA and RNA: Functiono Structure Length Sugar Bases Location
95
Which way is template strand read in DNA transcription? Which way is strand formed?
3' to 5' 5' to 3'
96
Define mitosis?
Division one cell into two identical daughter cells
97
What is it called where chromosomes line up?
Equatorial plate Metaphase
98
What is it called when haploid cell formed from diploid cell through meiosis?
Gametogenesis
99
What is sperm formation called? What is egg formation called?
Spermatogenesis Oogenesis
100
Outline spermatogeneesis?
Spermatogonia Meiosis 1- secondary spermatocytes Meiosis 2- 4 spermatides
101
How long does spermatogenesis take occur?
70 days
102
Outline oogenesis?
Meiosis 1- before birth form primary oocytes LH surge menstrual cycle complete meiosis 1- one secondary oocyte and one polar body Polar body undergo meiosis 2 form 2 polar bodies Secondary oocyte arrests in metaphase of meiosis 2 until 3 hours before ovulation Meiosis 2 complete following fertilisation If not fertilised oocyte degenerates
103
How manny oocytes at puberty?
40,000
104
What does spermatogenesis produce?
4 spermatids
105
What completes meiosis 1 in oogenesis?
LH surge during menstruation
106
When is secondary oocyte arrrested?
Arrest metaphase of meiosis 2 until 3 hours before ovulation
107
When is meiosis 2 completed?
After fertilisation
108
Explain down syndrome? What is risk factor?
Trisomy 21 Failure chromosome seperate in meiosis 1 or sister chromatids fail seperate meiosis 2 Increase age parents
109
Explain why disease can be present if both parents healthy? Risk factor?
Gonadal mosaicism- more one set genetic info found in gamete cells Error mitosis Incidence increase older father
110
State 2 types chromosomal abnormality?
Numerical- diff no chromo Structural- part missing or switch
111
Define phenotype?
Expression genotype
112
Define genotype
Genetic constitution/unique seq DNA
113
Why disparity between geno and phenotype?
1) Reduced penetrance 2) Variable expressibility
114
Define and example: Autosomal dominant Autosomal recessive
Autosomal dominant- only need one altered copy affected - Huntingtons Autosomal recessive- both copies need altered to be eff - CF and sickle cell
115
Define and example: X linked dominant X linked recessive
X linked dominant- variation X chromo- only one alter - males ALWAYS affects, female affected - fragile X syndrome X linked recessive- variation X chromo - male ALWAYS affects, female need 2 - Haemophilia
116
Why are males always effected in X linked?
Males only have 1X therefore have affected
117
Define lyonisation?
One X chromosome in every cell of female inactivated during embryonic development Prevent female have 2x X chromosome gene prodducts
118
Define multifactorial inheritance examples?
More 1 factor causes trait or health issue Cleft palate Spina bifida Diabetes
119
What are chromosome called aren't sex?
Autosomes
120
Define variable expression?
Range signs and symptoms that can occur in diff ppl with same genetic condition
121
Define reduced penetrance?
Lower proportion ppl with gene mutation exhibit signs and symptoms of genetic disorder
122
Define anticipation?
Signs and symptoms of genetic condition become more severe/appear earlier as disorder passed down generations
123
Define sex limitation?
Genes present in both sexes but only expressed one
124
Define assortative mating?
Ppl choose more/less similar in phenotype
125
What dietary energy source has most kcal/g
Lipid
126
What is product glycolysis?
Pyruvate
127
Where does krebs cycle occur??
Mitochondrial matrix
128
Can all tissues use ketone as fuel?
No Skeletal can
129
Which type of DNA mutation causes Huntingtons?
Expansion trinucleotide repeat
130
Which nucleotide base isn't present in RNA?
Thymine Uracil replaces it
131
Meiosis 2 in ova is complete before fertiliation?
False After
132
133
What do peroxisomes contain? Reaction?
Catalase 2H2O2 to 2H2O + O2
134
Where does glycolysis occur? Where does krebs occur? What is site electron transport chain and chemiosmosis? Where does ATP synthesis occur?
Glycolysis- cytosol Krebs- matrix Electron transport- cristae Inner membrane- ATP synthesis
135
136
Define chemiosmosis?
Movement ions across semi permeable membrane down electrochemical gradient ATP generation via H+ movement
137
Function: Mitochondria Ribosomes Rough ER Smooth ER Golgi Apparatus Cytoskeleton Nucleus Lysosomes Peroxisomes
138
What is yellow brown pigment from lipids?
Lipofuscin
139
How can lipids be stored?
1) Adipocytes- triglycerides 2) Cell membrane 3) Lipoproteins
140
Where is glycogen stored?
Liver Muscles Excess- converted glucagon secreting alpha cells in pancreas
141
Name 3 components of cell membrane?
Cholesterol- bind phospholipid promote fluidity Proteins- act transporters Glycolipids and glycoproteins- cell signal
142
State 4 functions of cell membrane?
1) Partially permeable membrane 2) Site membrane receptors 3) Regulate in and out 4) Act barrier- seperate inta and extracellular
143
What is overall structure cell membrane?
Phospholipid bilayer
144
Define tight junction Define adheren junction Define desmosome junction Define hemidesmosome junction Define gap junction
145
146
Define homeostasis?
Maintenance of constant internal environment
147
State 3 ways cells communicate achieve homeostasis?
Endocrine (hormones) Nervous (neurotransmitters) Immune (antibodies)
148
How is homeostasis maintained?Examples
Positive feedback- amplification- oxytocin. clotting cascade Negative feedback- back eq- thermoregulation/ blood glucose
149
Define and example: Autocrine Paracrine Endocrine Exocrine
150
What are 3 modes of secretion?
Merocrine- no part cell lost- salivary Apocrine- top part cell lost- mammary Holocrine- whole cell lost- sebaceous
151
Outline water distribution? 70 kg male Total water- 60%
152
Define: Osmosis Osmolality Osmolarity Osmotic pressure Oncotic pressure
153
State general formula for carbs?
CnH2nOn
154
State name- 1, 2, 3-12, 13+
Monosaccharide- 1 Disaccharide- 2 Oligosachharide- 3-12 Polysaccharide- 13+
155
State what forms: Lactose Sucrose Maltose
Glucose + Galactose = Lactose Glucose + Fructose = Sucrose Glucose + Glucose = Maltose
156
What is triglyceride made of?
3 FA and glycerol
157
What is phospholipid made of?
Glycerol, 2 FA, phosphate group
158
What is good cholesterol? What is bad cholesterol?
HDL- good- transport cholesterol to liver for metab LDL- bad- transport cholesterol to cells
159
name 2 purines? name 3 pyrimidines?
Purines- Adenine, Guanine Pyrimidines- Cytosine, Uracil, Thymine
160
How many bonds between A and T? How many bonds between C and G?
A-T 2x H bonds C-G 3x H bonds
161
Function nucleotides?
Building blocks DNA
162
What do 3 bases form?
Codon= aa
163
How many amino acids exist?
20
164
Function enzymes? Function coenzymes?
Enzymes- reduce activation energy Coenzyme- bind to active site of enzyme- activate it - change in structure
165
What base is present in RNA but not DNA?
RNA has uracil not thymine
166
State enzymes involved DNA replication (5)?
Topoisomerase- relieve supercoil, unwind double helix DNA helicase- break H bonds between 2 strands - exp nucleotides DNA polymerase- Read 3' to 5' Print 5' to 3' SSB- prevent reannealing- keep DNA strand apart
167
What enzyme unwinds double helix?
Topoisomerase
168
What enzyme breaks H bonds between 2 strands?
DNA helicase
169
What is responsible for printing and reading?
DNA polymerase
170
Where is the starting point for DNA synthesis? Why?
Primer- short strand DNA Start for DNA synthesis as DNA polymerase can only add nucleotides to existing strand
171
What prevents reannealing
SSB
172
Outline transcription?
1) Topoisomerase unwind DNA double helix 2) SSB coat prevent reannealing 3) DNA helicase break H bonds 4) Free mRNA nucleotides line next to comp bases on template (antisense) strand- begin promotor region 5) RNA polymerase form antiparallel mRNA strand- 5' to 3' 6) mRNA leave nucleus and attach 80s ribosome
173
Outline protein translation?
1) mRNA attached 80s ribosome 2) tRNA molecules have anticodons- comp to codons on mRNA strand on one end, aa correspond codon on other 3) When 2 tRNA molecules adjacent- peptide bond formed between two aa 4) Repeat until stop codon 5) Polypeptide released into cytoplasm
174
Where does translation occur?
Cytoplasm
175
Where does transcription occur?
Nucleus
176
Define missense mutation? Define nonsense mutation? Define silent mutation?
Missense- DNA nucleotide switched another- code diff AA Nonsense- stop codon coded for prematurely WORSE Silent- change seq DNA nucleotides without change in aa that it is coded for
177
Outline steps of cell cycle?
178
During what phase does crossing over occur?
Prophase
179
When do spindle fibres form?
Prometaphase
180
When do chromosomes line up on equatorial plate?
Metaphase
181
When are sister chromatids pulled towards poles?
Anaphase
182
When does nuclear envelope reform?
Telophase
183
184
What process produces sex cells?
Meiosis Create genetic variability in gametes
185
Draw meiosis?
186
What is it called when failure of homologous chromosomes to seperate during cell division?
Non disjunction
187
Define gonadal mosaicism, example?
More than one set genetic info present- gamete cells All or part germline affected, parental somatic not aff Osteogenesis imperfecta
188
Define: Phenotype Genotype Karyotype
Phenotype- observable characteristics, interaction genotype with environment Genotype- genetic constitution individual Karyotype- no and visual appearance of chromosome
189
Karyotype spread?
190
Define lyonisation?
X inactivation Process one of X chromosome inactivated in females
191
What disease?
X linked recessive (L) Autosomal dominant (R)
192
State 3 multifactorial disease?
Spina bifida Cleft lip Diabetes Schizophrenia
193
State 3 genetic disease?
Downs syndrome (trosomy 21) CF Huntingtons
194
State 3 environmental disease?
Kwashiorkor Drug relates Trauma related
195
What is main cause disease in developed countries?
Multifactorial
196
What is main cause of disease in less developed countries?
Environmental
197
Metaphase
198
List 3 stop codons List start codon
Stop- UGA UAA UAG Start- AUG (mmethionine)
199
How much fluid in intracellular compartment of 70kg male?
28L
200
What is ATP made of?
Adenine Ribose 3 phosphate
201
What processes convert ADP to ATP?
Krebs Oxidative phosphorylation Beta oxidation Glycolysis
202
What process converts ATP to ADP?
Biosynthesis macromolecules Muscle contraction Thermogenesis
203
Where does glycolysis occur?
Cytoplasm mitochondria
204
What does glycolysis produce?
2NADH 2 ATP 2 Pyruvate
205
Draw glycolysis?
206
What is rate limiting step glycolysis?
Fructose 6 phosphate to fructose 1,6-bisphosphate
207
What is rate limiting enzyme glycolysis?
Phosphofructokinase-1
208
What is pyruvate converted to before krebs?
Acetyl coA
209
Draw krebs cycle?
210
What is rate limiting enzyme in Krebs?
Isocitrate dehydrogenase
211
What are enzymes in Krebs inhibited by?
ATP NADH Products
212
What activates krebs cycle?
High ADP
213
Where does oxidative phosphorylation occur?
Mitochondrial membrane
214
Outline oxidative phosphorylation process?
NADH+, FADH oxidise H+ pumped into intermembrane space Flow down gradient via ATP synthase form ATP Final electron acceptor
215
Where does fatty acid oxidation occur?
Mitochondria Need carnitine shuffle
216
Draw FA beta oxidation?
217
Give examples of FA?
lINOLEIC, OLEIC, PALMITIC
218
Where are ketones made?
Liver Strong acid
219
State 3 ketones?
Acetone Acetoacetate B-hydroxybutyrate
220
What is formation of ketones called? When does it occur?
Ketogenesis Starvation- ketone used heart, muscle save gluc brain Excessive exercise Diabetic patients
221
Explain diabetic ketoacidosis?
Low insulin means high glucose Increase FFA oxidation as high glucagon Exceed TCA cycle Increase ketone- acidaemia
222
What is main ion in ECF? What is main ion in ICF?
ECF- Na+ ICF- K+
223
Define sensible/insensible fluid loss?
Sensible- measured- urine Insensible- can't measured-
224
State 2 ways sodium regulated?
Renin-angiotensin system Nephrons
225
What occurs: First Second Third Fourth Fifth to eighth? Embryology
226
What is gastrulation?
Formation trilaminar disc
227
What makes up trilaminar disc?
Ectoderm- skin, CNS, PNS, hair, nail, eye Endoderm- GI tract, thyroid, liver, resp Mesoderm- conn tissue, cartilage, urogenital, blood/vess
228
Explain neurulation process?
Notochord derived mesoderm Release chemical messengers affect ectoderm Cause infolding- neural tube
229
What does neural tube develop into?
Brain and spinal cord
230
E
231
B
232
233
C
234
Week 3- C
235
A
236
B
237
A
238
B
239
D

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