Immune System Flashcards
1
Q
What are enzymes?
A
Biological catalysts that accelerate biochemical reactions within living organisms
2
Q
Who isolated the enzyme amylase and in what year?
A
Anselme Payen and Jean-François Persoz in 1833
3
Q
What significant discovery did Eduard Buchner make in 1897?
A
Fermentation can occur outside of living yeast cells
4
Q
What was the significance of Buchner’s discovery?
A
It established that enzymes are pivotal in metabolic processes
5
Q
What did James Sumner achieve in 1926?
A
Successfully crystallized urease, confirming enzymes are proteins
6
Q
What are the three categories of enzymes based on mineral interactions?
A
- Metalloenzymes
- Metal-activated enzymes
- Cofactor-dependent microbial enzymes
7
Q
What is the role of vitamins in microbial enzyme technology?
A
Facilitate industrial fermentation and biosynthesis
8
Q
What are coenzymes?
A
Biologically active forms of vitamins that enhance microbial enzyme catalysis
9
Q
Name a water-soluble vitamin essential for bacterial metabolism.
A
B-complex vitamins or Vitamin C
10
Q
What are the key structural features of Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)?
A
Contains a thiazole and pyrimidine ring
11
Q
What is the coenzyme form of Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)?
A
FAD and FMN
12
Q
What is the function of NAD⁺ in microbial metabolism?
A
Electron carrier in microbial fermentation and respiration
13
Q
What is the coenzyme form of Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic Acid)?
A
Coenzyme A
14
Q
What type of reactions does Biotin (Vitamin B7) facilitate?
A
Carboxylation reactions
15
Q
What is the role of FAD in microbial respiration?
A
Essential electron carrier in the microbial Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
16
Q
Fill in the blank: Coenzymes serve as _______ in microbial enzymes.
A
electron carriers, acyl group donors, and carbon transfer agents
17
Q
What mineral is crucial for DNA replication in bacteria?
A
Magnesium (Mg²⁺)
18
Q
Name an example of a metalloenzyme.
A
Laccase with Cu²⁺ in fungi
19
Q
What is the primary role of Zinc (Zn²⁺) in microbial enzyme activity?
A
Structural role and catalytic function
20
Q
What are the six major classes of enzymes according to the IUBMB?
A
- Oxidoreductases
- Transferases
- Hydrolases
- Lyases
- Isomerases
- Ligases
21
Q
What is an example of an oxidoreductase?
A
Lactate dehydrogenase
22
Q
What does the systematic name of an enzyme describe?
A
The substrate and reaction type
23
Q
What is the EC number for Hexokinase?
A
EC 2.7.1.1
24
Q
What is the function of Coenzyme A in microbial metabolism?
A
Fatty acid metabolism
25
True or False: Vitamins can function independently in metabolic reactions.
False
26
What modification converts Riboflavin into its coenzyme form?
Phosphorylation to FMN and FAD
27
What is the coenzyme form of Vitamin B6?
Pyridoxal phosphate (PLP)
28
What is the role of minerals in microbial enzyme function?
Act as cofactors, stabilizing enzymes and aiding in biocatalysis
29
What is the function of Iron (Fe²⁺/Fe³⁺) in microbial respiration?
Electron transfer
30
List two examples of coenzymes derived from vitamins.
* NAD⁺ from Niacin (B3)
* FAD from Riboflavin (B2)
31
What is the function of Hexokinase (EC 2.7.1.1)?
Transfers phosphate from ATP to glucose
32
What type of reaction do Hydrolases catalyze?
Bond cleavage using water
33
What is the specific function of Trypsin (EC 3.4.21.4)?
Hydrolyzes peptide bonds in proteins
34
What distinguishes Lyases from other enzymes?
Break bonds without water or oxidation
35
What does Fumarase (EC 4.2.1.2) convert?
Converts fumarate to malate
36
What is the role of Isomerases?
Rearrange molecules into isomers
37
What does Triosephosphate isomerase (EC 5.3.1.1) convert?
Converts DHAP to G3P in glycolysis
38
What is the function of Ligases?
Join molecules using ATP
39
What does DNA ligase (EC 6.5.1.1) do?
Joins DNA strands
40
What does the EC Number format consist of?
Four levels: EC x.y.z.w
41
What does 'x' represent in the EC Number format?
Main enzyme class (1-6)
42
What does 'y' represent in the EC Number format?
Subclass (reaction type)
43
What does 'z' represent in the EC Number format?
Sub-subclass (specific group acted upon)
44
What does 'w' represent in the EC Number format?
Serial number for that enzyme
45
Provide an example of an enzyme with its EC Number.
Lactate dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.27)
46
What is the importance of enzyme nomenclature?
Standardization, classification, biotechnological applications
47
What does standardization in enzyme nomenclature ensure?
Universal understanding across scientific fields
48
Why is classification important in enzyme nomenclature?
Helps in identifying enzyme functions and relationships
49
In what applications is enzyme nomenclature useful?
Medicine, industry, and research
50
What environment do enzymes predominantly operate in vivo?
Aqueous environment
51
What characterizes the reactions catalyzed by enzymes?
Exhibit some degree of reversibility
52
What is modified in microorganisms to direct reactions to desired products?
Genetically modifying the organism
53
What is a redox process?
Chemical reaction involving the transfer of electrons between molecules
54
What are the two simultaneous processes in a redox reaction?
Oxidation and reduction
55
Define oxidation in the context of redox processes.
The loss of electrons by a molecule, atom, or ion
56
Define reduction in the context of redox processes.
The gain of electrons by a molecule, atom, or ion
57
What is the core mechanism of a redox process?
Electron transfer
58
What happens to the oxidant in a redox reaction?
Gains electrons and gets reduced
59
What happens to the reductant in a redox reaction?
Loses electrons and gets oxidized
60
In biological systems, what role do redox reactions play?
Cellular respiration, metabolism, and biosynthesis
61
What are enzymes?
Biological catalysts that accelerate biochemical reactions within living organisms
62
Who isolated the enzyme amylase and in what year?
Anselme Payen and Jean-François Persoz in 1833
63
What significant discovery did Eduard Buchner make in 1897?
Fermentation can occur outside of living yeast cells
64
What was the significance of Buchner's discovery?
It established that enzymes are pivotal in metabolic processes
65
What did James Sumner achieve in 1926?
Successfully crystallized urease, confirming enzymes are proteins
66
What are the three categories of enzymes based on mineral interactions?
* Metalloenzymes
* Metal-activated enzymes
* Cofactor-dependent microbial enzymes
67
What is the role of vitamins in microbial enzyme technology?
Facilitate industrial fermentation and biosynthesis
68
What are coenzymes?
Biologically active forms of vitamins that enhance microbial enzyme catalysis
69
Name a water-soluble vitamin essential for bacterial metabolism.
B-complex vitamins or Vitamin C
70
What are the key structural features of Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)?
Contains a thiazole and pyrimidine ring
71
What is the coenzyme form of Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)?
FAD and FMN
72
What is the function of NAD⁺ in microbial metabolism?
Electron carrier in microbial fermentation and respiration
73
What is the coenzyme form of Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic Acid)?
Coenzyme A
74
What type of reactions does Biotin (Vitamin B7) facilitate?
Carboxylation reactions
75
What is the role of FAD in microbial respiration?
Essential electron carrier in the microbial Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
76
Fill in the blank: Coenzymes serve as _______ in microbial enzymes.
electron carriers, acyl group donors, and carbon transfer agents
77
What mineral is crucial for DNA replication in bacteria?
Magnesium (Mg²⁺)
78
Name an example of a metalloenzyme.
Laccase with Cu²⁺ in fungi
79
What is the primary role of Zinc (Zn²⁺) in microbial enzyme activity?
Structural role and catalytic function
80
What are the six major classes of enzymes according to the IUBMB?
* Oxidoreductases
* Transferases
* Hydrolases
* Lyases
* Isomerases
* Ligases
81
What is an example of an oxidoreductase?
Lactate dehydrogenase
82
What does the systematic name of an enzyme describe?
The substrate and reaction type
83
What is the EC number for Hexokinase?
EC 2.7.1.1
84
What is the function of Coenzyme A in microbial metabolism?
Fatty acid metabolism
85
True or False: Vitamins can function independently in metabolic reactions.
False
86
What modification converts Riboflavin into its coenzyme form?
Phosphorylation to FMN and FAD
87
What is the coenzyme form of Vitamin B6?
Pyridoxal phosphate (PLP)
88
What is the role of minerals in microbial enzyme function?
Act as cofactors, stabilizing enzymes and aiding in biocatalysis
89
What is the function of Iron (Fe²⁺/Fe³⁺) in microbial respiration?
Electron transfer
90
List two examples of coenzymes derived from vitamins.
* NAD⁺ from Niacin (B3)
* FAD from Riboflavin (B2)
91
What is the function of Hexokinase (EC 2.7.1.1)?
Transfers phosphate from ATP to glucose
92
What type of reaction do Hydrolases catalyze?
Bond cleavage using water
93
What is the specific function of Trypsin (EC 3.4.21.4)?
Hydrolyzes peptide bonds in proteins
94
What distinguishes Lyases from other enzymes?
Break bonds without water or oxidation
95
What does Fumarase (EC 4.2.1.2) convert?
Converts fumarate to malate
96
What is the role of Isomerases?
Rearrange molecules into isomers
97
What does Triosephosphate isomerase (EC 5.3.1.1) convert?
Converts DHAP to G3P in glycolysis
98
What is the function of Ligases?
Join molecules using ATP
99
What does DNA ligase (EC 6.5.1.1) do?
Joins DNA strands
100
What does the EC Number format consist of?
Four levels: EC x.y.z.w
101
What does 'x' represent in the EC Number format?
Main enzyme class (1-6)
102
What does 'y' represent in the EC Number format?
Subclass (reaction type)
103
What does 'z' represent in the EC Number format?
Sub-subclass (specific group acted upon)
104
What does 'w' represent in the EC Number format?
Serial number for that enzyme
105
Provide an example of an enzyme with its EC Number.
Lactate dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.27)
106
What is the importance of enzyme nomenclature?
Standardization, classification, biotechnological applications
107
What does standardization in enzyme nomenclature ensure?
Universal understanding across scientific fields
108
Why is classification important in enzyme nomenclature?
Helps in identifying enzyme functions and relationships
109
In what applications is enzyme nomenclature useful?
Medicine, industry, and research
110
What environment do enzymes predominantly operate in vivo?
Aqueous environment
111
What characterizes the reactions catalyzed by enzymes?
Exhibit some degree of reversibility
112
What is modified in microorganisms to direct reactions to desired products?
Genetically modifying the organism
113
What is a redox process?
Chemical reaction involving the transfer of electrons between molecules
114
What are the two simultaneous processes in a redox reaction?
Oxidation and reduction
115
Define oxidation in the context of redox processes.
The loss of electrons by a molecule, atom, or ion
116
Define reduction in the context of redox processes.
The gain of electrons by a molecule, atom, or ion
117
What is the core mechanism of a redox process?
Electron transfer
118
What happens to the oxidant in a redox reaction?
Gains electrons and gets reduced
119
What happens to the reductant in a redox reaction?
Loses electrons and gets oxidized
120
In biological systems, what role do redox reactions play?
Cellular respiration, metabolism, and biosynthesis
121
Lecture No te: Microbial Detection Techniques in Forensics
122
Introduction
123
Microbial forensics is an evolving field that employs microbiological
molecular
124
biochemical techniques to detect and analyze microorganisms involved in criminal
125
investigations
bioterrorism
126
crucial in identifying sources of contamination
tracking disease outbreaks
127
forensic linkages. This lecture will provide an in-depth understanding of microbial detection
128
techniques and their applications in forensic sCience.
129
1. Importance of Microbial Detection in Forensics
130
Microbial detection techniques help forensic Cxperts:
131
Identify pathogenic or unique microbial strains ]linked to criminal cases.
132
Trace sources of biological threats and bioterrorism agents.
133
Differentiate natural outbreaks from deliberate microbial releases.
134
Establish microbial signatures associated with specific environments or individuals.
135
2. Culture-Based Techniques
136
Culture-based methods remain fundamental in microbial detection
involving the growth of
137
microorganisms on selective and differential media
138
Agar Plate Culturing: Bacteria and rungi are grown on nutrient-rich media to study
139
colony morphology and biochemical properties.
140
Selective and Differential Media: Speciie gTowth media enhance the isolation of
141
target micro bes (e.g.
MacConkey agar for Gram-negative bacteria).
142
Enrichment Cultures: Used for loW-cOncentration microbes
allowing preferential
143
growth before analysis.
144
Limitations:
145
Time-consuming (24-72 hours for bacterial growth).
146
Some microbes are non-culturable under standard laboratory conditions.
147
3. Microscopy-Based Techn iques
148
Microscopic examination provides direct visualization of microbial cells.
149
Light Microscopy: Used for Gram staining and morphological characterization of
150
bacteria.
151
Fluorescence Microscopy: Uses fluorescent dves to detect specific bacterial species.
152
Electron Microscopy: Provides high-resolution images of microbial ultrastructure
153
essential for viral detection.
154
4. Molecular Detection Techniques
155
) Shot on POWER P55 T
156
Molecular techniques provide high specificity and sensitivity for microbial identification.
