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Immunology Flashcards

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1
Q

State 2 says that pathogens can cause harm/ disease?

A
  • Produce toxins that can directly damage tissue
  • can sometimes replicate inside and destroy host cells
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2
Q

Each type of cell has specific molecules on its _______________________ that identify pathogens.

A

Plasma cell surface membrane

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3
Q

What is the name of the specific molecules on plasma cell surface membranes that identify pathogens?

A

Antigens

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4
Q

What type of organic molecules do antigens include?

A

Proteins

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5
Q

What kind of cells do antigens enable the immune system to identify?

A
  • pathogens
  • cells from other organisms of the same species
  • abnormal body cells
  • toxins
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6
Q

What is an antigen?

A

A molecule (usually a protein) that stimulates an immune response and results in the production of a specific antibody

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7
Q

What are the surface of all cells covered in?

A

Specifically shaped antigens

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8
Q

Which type of cells are covered in specifically shaped antigens on their surfaces?

A
  • All own cells
  • foreign cells
  • pathogens
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9
Q

What happens if antigens are not recognised?

A

The body will treat that cell/pathogen as non-self and initiate an immune response.
This will lead to the destruction of the cell/pathogen/protein.

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10
Q

Give two examples of antigens

A

Glycoproteins
Glycolipids

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11
Q

What are the two types of immune responses?

A

Innate immune response
Adaptive immune response

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12
Q

What is an innate immune response?

A

Non-specific
“First line of defence”

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13
Q

What is an adaptive immune response?

A

Specific to a certain antigen

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14
Q

Are T-cells an adaptive immune response or an innate immune response?

A

Adaptive

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15
Q

Is skin an adaptive immune response or an innate immune response?

A

Innate

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16
Q

Is mucus secretion an adaptive immune response or an innate immune response?

A

Innate

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17
Q

Is blood clotting an adaptive immune response or an innate immune response?

A

Innate

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18
Q

Are tears (e.g. lysozymes) an adaptive immune response or an innate immune response?

A

Innate

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19
Q

Are B-cells an adaptive immune response or an innate immune response?

A

Adaptive

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20
Q

Are phagocytic cells (e.g. macrophages) an adaptive immune response or an innate immune response?

A

Innate

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21
Q

List examples of innate immune responses

A

Skin
Mucus secretion
Blood clotting
Phagocytic cells (e.g. macrophages)
Tears (e.g. lysozymes)

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22
Q

List examples of adaptive immune responses

A

T-cells (cell-mediated response)
B-cells (humoral response - production of antibodies)

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23
Q

What are phagocytes a group of?

A

White blood cells

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24
Q

What do phagocytes do?

A

They are capable of distinguishing between cells which do or do not display self antigens.
Also capable of detecting chemical signals produced by pathogens.

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25
How do phagocytes work?
Will ingest/engulf and destroy any cell that presents a non-self antigen. Move to the site or infection, engulf and begin to hydrolyse pathogens.
26
Describe the process of phagocytosis
- Pathogen is engulfed by the phagocyte - Engulfed pathogen enters the cytoplasm in a vesicle, now called a phagosome - Lysosomes fuse with phagosome releasing hydrolytic digestive enzymes - lysozymes - Lysozymes hydrolyse the pathogen - Waste materials are released from the cell via exocytosis. - Antigens are presented on the cell surface membrane, phagocyte becomes an antigen presenting cell.
27
How is the vesicle formed in phagocytosis?
Cell membrane of phagocyte folds around pathogen. Folded membrane fuses forming a phagocytic vesicle released into the cell with pathogen inside.
28
What kind of process is phagocytosis?
Non-specific immunity
29
What type of cells does phagocytosis work on?
Any cell/ pathogen that displays a (non-self) antigen
30
Why does phagocytosis not always occur/ why is it not suitable?
It would take too long to destroy all the invading pathogens in the event of an infection, which may result in damage to tissues and organs.
31
What is specific immunity?
A specific response to a specific antigen on the surface of a cell or pathogen that has been recognised as non-self
32
What type of cells are used in cell-mediated immunity?
T-lymphocytes / T-cells
33
T-cells are responsible for the stage of an immune response called…
The cellular response
34
What are the stages in which cellular response occurs?
Antigen presenting Clonal selection Role of T-cells
35
How does the antigen presenting stage of cell mediated immunity work?
T helper cells can respond directly to the pathogen or its antigens Or respond to antigen presenting cells that presents the specific complementary antigen.
36
Describe the antigen presenting stage of cell mediated immunity
1. Phagocyte engulfs and hydrolyses the pathogen, and presents the antigen on the cell surface membrane.
37
Describe the clonal selection stage of cell mediated immunity
A specific T helper cell binds to presented antigen via its complementary receptor. T helper cell is activated and clones to produce many t helper cells with complementary receptors to the antigen
38
When the specific T helper cell has been activated, the cloned daughter cells differentiate into how many types of T cell?
3
39
What are the three types of T cells?
* T helper cell * Tc cell (cytotoxin killer T cell) * Memory T cell
40
What is the role of the T helper cell?
* Specific T helper cell binds to the antigen presenting cell * Release cytokines that attract phagocytes to the area of infection * Release cytokines that activate cytotoxic killer T cell * Activates a specifically complementary B cell * Form memory T helper cells
41
What is the role of the cytotoxic Killer T cell (Tc cell)?
* Locate and destroys infected body cells that present the correct antigen * Binds to antigen presenting cells * Releases perforin (protein) which creates holes in the cell surface membrane which destroys the APC
42
What is the role of the memory T cell?
Remains dormant in blood and tissue fluid and then divides to form more T-cells if the same antigen is encountered in the future
43
Define the humoral response
The humoral response involves the activation of B cells to produce antibodies. B cells must be stimulated by their complementary T helper cell by the release of cytokines.
44
What are cytokines?
Chemical signals that causes a B cell to make and secrete antibodies
45
What is clonal selection?
The process of matching the antigens on an antigen presenting cells with the antigen receptors on B and T lymphocytes
46
What is clonal expansion?
The production of many genetically identical daughter cells through mitosis of the activated B or T lymphocyte after clonal selection
47
How many types of cells do B cells differentiate into?
2
48
What types of cells do B cells differentiate into?
Plasma cells Memory B cells
49
What is the role of plasma b cells?
Produce and secrete vast quantities of specific antibodies into the blood plasma
50
What is the role of memory b cells?
Remain in the body to respond to pathogen rapidly and extensively in case of future re-infection of the same antigen
51
Describe the process of the humoral response
* (B cell activation) * A specific T helper cell with the correct receptor binds to presented antigen and then locates and activates a specific, complementary B cell. * The specific T helper cell releases cytokine chemicals that signal the specific be cell to clone by mitosis - clonal selection * The B cell differentiates into two types of cell: plasma cells or memory B cells * Plasma cells produce and secrete vast quanitites of specific antibodies into the blood plasma * Memory B cells remain in the body to respond to pathogen rapidly and extensively in case of future re-infection.
52
What is the name of the whole process called - from initally recognising a pathogen as non-self, up to producting antibodies?
Primary response
53
What is an antibody?
Protein made in response to foreign - has binding sites which bind specifically to an antigen. A specific antibody is produced by a specific 'plasma cell'
54
What kind of protein structure do antibodies have?
Quaternary structure
55
How many polypeptide chains are antibodies made up of?
4
56
What is the overall shape of an antibody?
Y shaped
57
What are the two parts of an antibody called?
* constant region * variable region
58
What is the main part of the antibody called?
Constant region
59
What is the constant region like in all antibodies?
The same in all antibodies
60
What is the variable region like in all antibodies?
different for each antibody
61
Describe the structure of the variable regions in different antibodies
* Different primary structure * Therefore different tertiary structure * Contains antigen binding site * Antigen binding site is specific and therefore different for each antibody
62
_______ antibodies are only ____________ to one antigen
Specific antibodies are only complementary to one antigen
63
What is formed when antibodies bind to specific antigens?
antigen-antibody complex
64
What bond is between the R groups in the antibody?
disulphide bridges
65
How do antibodies assist in the destruction of pathogens?
* Agglutination * Opsonisation * Lysis * Anti-toxin and Anti-venom * Prevent pathogen replication
66
What is agglutination?
Specific antibodies bind to the antigens on pathogen and clump them together
67
What is opsonisation?
marking pathogens so phagocytes recognise and destroy pathogen more efficiently
68
What is lysis?
Bind to antigens and lead to destruction of the pathogens membrane
69
What are antitoxins and antivenom?
Bind to toxins or venom (both usually proteins) to prevent these molecules from binding to their complementary target receptors
70
How do memory cells work?
* If the memory cells encounter the same pathogen again, they are rapidly activated (by cytokines secreted by specific T helper cell) and divide rapidly by mitosis * the genetically identical cloned memory cells differentiate into plasma cells and more memory B cells * The plasma cells produce lots of the specific antibodies for the invading pathogen, in a short period of time.
71
What is a secondary response?
The activation of memory cells to produce antibodies
72
Why is the secondary response important/beneficial?
* it is both rapid and extensive * meaning that the antigen is normally eliminated before it can cause disease or any symptoms develop (the person is immune to the disease) * more antibodies are produced more rapidly

Biology (7 decks)

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