Imperial Attitudes 1857-1890 Flashcards
(47 cards)
1
Q
What departments oversaw the British Empire?
A
- Policy decisions regarding Empire lay with the elected government and a separate Colonial Office had been established to deal specifically with Empire. (formerly established in 1801 but functioned separately from 1854)
(- a separate office for India was established in 1858 after the Indian Mutiny) - Office was headed by Colonial Secretary
1
Q
Dominions/settler colonies and their governing
A
- Dominions = where white-settlers were of a substantial representation
- 1838 Durham Report established Canada, NZ, Australia to be Dominions
- Dominions elected their own assemblies and ministers
2
Q
What was informal empire?
A
= Places influenced by Britain
- usually economically, via free trade agreements or by British investment in the country.
- British influence also derived from commerce, financed by British capital, carried in British ships and providing profits for British companies, bankers and insurance firms
3
Q
Informal empire Latin America?
A
Commercial agreements and British investment influenced Latin America, in particular Chile, Argentina and Mexico.
- British public capital in Latin America stood at over £80 million.
- 10% of British exports went to Latin America in 1865.
4
Q
Other countries brought under British influence via free trade agreements?
A
Iran
Siam (Thailand)
5
Q
The weak Chinese empire also under British Influence?
A
- Began with Britain’s need to sell opium to China to finance BEIC. Forced to make concessions to Britain, who used her naval power to threaten attempts to disrupt opium trade from India to China.
- Treaties of Nanking (1842) and Tientsin (1858), which were after both Opium Wars, ensured Britain gained trading bases, for example in Shanghai and Hong Kong. Settled with British people and governed under British law.
- 1863 – Robert Hart appointed head of Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs Office. Acted as branch of gov. with purpose of protecting British interests. Parts of China joined British informal empire and British gained unhindered access to Chinese markets.
6
Q
How did Britain uphold infomal empire in latin america?
A
used naval force in making sure informal empire upheld free trade treaties in Latin America.
- In 1861, Britain put naval pressure on Mexico to maintain trade.
- In 1857 and 1863, Peru and Chile (respectively) had naval threat to ensure compliance.
7
Q
Why/which territories of strategic importance fell under British influence?
A
erritories of strategic importance also fell under British influence due to diplomatic pressures and appointment of key advisers.
- Sultanate of Zanzibar in East Africa, on coast of Indian Ocean, placed under British influence due to work of John Kirk. In 1891, British established a government there with John Kirk as Minister.
- In Afghanistan, Treaty of Gandamak of 1879 provided British key strategic locations and control of foreign policy.
8
Q
What does informal empire show us about the British reasons and/or justifications for Empire?
A
- British used empire for their own benefit, British had no ultimate control and were able to enjoy influence without responsibility.
9
Q
Why were explorers important to Empire?
A
- Explorers like David Livingstone, John Kirk, Richard Burton and John Hanning Speke became household names.
- Their exploits were well published by missionary press and were eagerly read by British public.
- Helped open up the interior of Africa by producing maps and publishing their findings. - Made Empire appear exciting.
10
Q
David Livingstone (EXPLORER) (most famous)
A
- Began travels as a missionary doctor in South Africa, 1841. Explored deserts, lakes and rivers. Named infamous ‘Victoria Falls’. Crossed continent from West to East before returning to Britain and publishing books, conducting lectures at Cambridge University and recounting geography, mineralogy, diseases and languages he’d seen abroad.
- Received funding from British government in 1858 to return to Africa and ‘try to open up a path for commerce and Christianity’.
- Portrayed as a martyr who saved Britain when he was lost and found by Henry Stanley in 1871.
11
Q
John Kirk (EXPLORER)
A
- Helped explore waterways with Livingstone. Appointed chief medical officer for his Zambezi expedition. Collected many aquatic specimens which he wrote about and sent back to Britain.
- Returned to Africa in 1868 as medical officer and Vice-Consul of Zanzibar, which he helped keep as a client state of Britain. Initiated British treaties that ensured Sultan outlawed Zanzibar’s slave trade and with British aid, commerce grew.
12
Q
Sir Richard Burton (EXPLORER)
A
- Adventurer in 1850s famous for stories of Muslim life and mannerisms. Took visits to Islamic cities such as Mecca, where no western Christian had ever been. Took expeditions in Somaliland in 1855 and Zanzibar in 1857 & 1858. Competition between John Speke after he contracted malaria led to both debating source of Nile, which Speke thought to be Victoria Falls.
- Speke’s death made this impossible and Burton eventually went on to write several books and volumes about his exploration in Africa, particularly Western. Produced various translations of texts such as the Kama Sutra. Wrote essays on pornography, homosexuality and sexual education of women.
13
Q
Why were Christian missionaries important to Empire?
A
- Missionaries helped open up territories to British rule by penetrating beyond colonial frontiers (for example, into the Congo in Africa or inland China in the 1880s) by establishing links with indigenous communities. Shared their geographical and strategic knowledge with the chiefs and British authorities.
- Wanted to open up the world to Christianity, saw populations amongst whom they worked as ‘in need’ of saving from ignorance and moral poverty. Contributed to imperialistic and jingoistic views in Britain, as many believed natives benefitted.
- They criticised imperial politics but weren’t starkly opposed to concept of imperialism. Helped increase economic and material prosperity for people in regions, advanced imperialism by consolidating or staking claims to territory thus extending Britain’s commercial reach.
14
Q
Methodist missionaries
A
By middle of the 18th century, Wasylena missionaries had set up ‘Conferences’ to oversee missions in Canada, New Zealand and Australia.
- Those from Australia helped establish ground for British rule in Fiji, 1874.
- South African conference similarly established in 1882.
- In 1883, John Mackenzie put pressure on British government to establish protectorate over Bechuanaland.
- Missions also established in China and India from 1850s and West Indies in 1885.
15
Q
Key female missionaries?
A
- Mary Slessor aimed to end practice of killing twins in Calabar, Nigeria.
- Mary Carpenter worked to improve female education in India when she travelled there in 1866.
16
Q
Missionary clashes?
A
Missions also clashed between one another at times, with natives or even colonial rulers. Therefore, it sometimes delayed British rule by prolonging annexation and challenging imperial authority. Some Christian missionaries provided focus for opposition to colonial rule.
17
Q
Why were traders important to empire?
A
Traders had an important role to play in the development of attitudes to Empire. Once commercial enterprises had established a foothold somewhere, British administration often followed.
(- East India Company led way towards British control of India and commercial exploits of Cecil Rhodes, William Mackinnon and George Goldie established British growth in Africa in 19th century. Protected British interests.)
18
Q
Cecil Rhodes (Trader)
A
- Owned all South Africa’s diamond mines (90% of global diamond production) and had wealth to pursue ‘furtherance of the British Empire and the bringing of the whole of the uncivilised world under British rule.’
- Rhodes granted a charter to establish British South Africa Company in 1889, through concessions and treaties. In his honour, named ‘Rhodesia’ in 1895.
- Rhodes said his ambitions were moralistic and for the bettering of the human race.
19
Q
William Mackinnon (Trader)
A
- Self-made Scottish businessman who began coating trade around Bay of Bengal. In 1856, he founded Calcutta and Burma Steam Navigation Company. This became British India Steam Navigation Company and grew into a huge business organisation, trading through Indian Ocean, Burma and Persian Gulf.
- Founded Imperial British East Africa Company in 1888 with a charter supported by British government as a means of establishing influence in region.
20
Q
George Goldie (Trader)
A
- Bought a palm oil business in 1875. Palm oil was popular due to lubricating qualities.
- Formed Central African Trading Company in 1876, visited in 1877 and in 1879, persuaded all local trading firms to join family-run firm to establish United African Company, which controlled 30 trading posts.
- Application for a royal charter in 1881 was rejected. Goldie managed however to find way to convert palm kernels 🡪 margarine. These later exceeded value of palm oil. Goldie therefore was able to offer concessions to local tribal chiefs, who signed treaties to trade only with his company’s agents whilst Goldie promised to buy up all spare goods. Established cocoa and coffee plantations.
- Managed to secure 450 local treaties which allowed company to have control over their territories and ultimately led Britain to securing protectorate over Northern and Southern Niger at the Berlin Conference 1884-5.
- Goldie’s firm chartered as Royal Niger Company in 1886 and was knighted in 1887.
21
Q
Why were administrators important to Empire?
A
Empire typically run by ‘men on the spot’- company directors, governors, high administrators and consuls. Often tempted by opportunities to acquire more influence and so brought more lands under British control. Many took independent decisions about how regions should be administered and developed.
22
Q
Evelyn Baring (Administrators)
A
- Began career as colonial administrator, serving in India as private secretary to cousin, Lord Northbrook, Viceroy from 1872 to 1876. Was able administrator, however, was known as ‘Over-Baring’. Typical Victorian colonial administrator who was liberal and hardworking but also condescending towards natives.
- Baring’s second posting was in Egypt in 1877, when he was sent out to help Isma’ili Pasha out of his financial difficulties. His advice was ignored but returned in 1882 as Consul-General and established an Egyptian puppet parliament in 1883 under the Dufferin Report. Asserted the need for British supervision of reforms in bankrupt Egypt. This established a ‘veiled protectorate’ in 1885 whereby Baring ruled rulers of Egypt. Remained the real ruler of Egypt till resigning in 1907.
23
Q
Bartle Frere (Administrators)
A
- Served in quelling Indian Mutiny, which won him knighthood and place on Viceroy’s Council at Calcutta. Subsequently became Governor of Bombay, a member of India Council in Britain between 1867-1877 and a baronet. His experience led to appointment in 1877 as High Commissioner and Governor of Cape Colony.
- Conservative Colonial Secretary, Lord Carnarvon, chose him to carry out planned confederation, merging British South Africa with Boer republic of Transvaal. South African colonists were hostile to plan and Transvaal Boers wanted to keep independence, leading to Boer War. Frere was left in a difficult position when Carnarvon resigned in 1878. Although ending in British victory, defeat of British forces at Isandlwana in January 1879 and high cost of war led to official reprimand. Gladstone’s Liberal government denounced him for acting recklessly.
24
Overall - how important were individuals in the expansion of the British empire from 1957-1890?
Role of individuals and ‘men on the spot’ in expansion of British Empire from years 1857-1890 was incredibly significant. All played a unique role in helping the British Empire expand horizons territorially, in extending economic influence and in spreading and promoting ‘glory’ of Empire and developing regions somewhat.
25
Who was Disraeli?
Twice PM and regarded in 1870s as a great supporter for Empire from his Crystal Palace speech in 1972
- Leader of Conservatives
26
What did Disraeli believe about Empire?
- That Conservatives were "party of Empire: and that Liberal opponents would allow Empire to crumble
- Said in his infamous Crystal Palace speech 1852, that "in my opinion no minister in this country will do his duty who neglects any opportunity of reconstructing as much as possible our colonial empire"
27
How was Disraeli's govt involved in expanding and/or administering the Empire?
- 1867 Reform Act : expanded the right to vote for 1.5 mil working class men - allowed him to play "imperial card"
- 1875: Purchased shares to Suez for £4mil
- 1876: Disraeli supported bill which appointed Queen Victoria Empress of India. Passed in 1877 as Royal Titles Act
- 1879: Tried to turn Afghanistan into a client state with Treaty of Gandamark
- Annexed Boer republic of the Transvaal in 1877 and launched war on Zulu and Pedi tribes in hope of establishing British confederation over Southern Africa. Proved a failure and British troops were humiliated at Isandlwana in January 1879 before securing victory a few months later. Contributed to the Liberal government winning election in 1880.
28
Who was Gladstone?
Leader of the Liberal party
PM from 1890s
29
What did Gladstone believe about Empire?
- Britain needed to avoid new acquisitions and concentrate on developing existing colonies, helping them towards self-government
- Distinguished between 'imperialism' which he opposed and "Empire" which he supported
- In the eyes of Glastone and his Liberals, Disraeli's 'imperialist' talk was dangerous and stirred up jingoism.
30
How was Gladstone/his govt involved in the first Boer War?
Gladstone had to defend British garrisons which were attacked by Boers, heralding First Boer War of 1880-1. After troops were defeated at Majuba Hill in February 1881, Gladstone declined to commit further troops, time or money to uphold Disraeli’s ambition for British hegemony over South Africa.
31
What was Glastone/his govt involvement in the Mahdist rebellion in Egypt?
Mahdist rebellion in Egypt forced Gladstone to take action in region. Gladstone ordered withdrawal of British troops in 1884 in Sudan. Wasn’t re-elected due to slaughtering of British troops in Khartoum in 1885. Queen condemned him as did British public for not intervening earlier.
32
How was Gladstone involved in the Suez Canal?
Gladstone became embroiled in Egypt for maintaining Suez Canal. He sent troops in 1881 to stop Arabi Pasha’s uprising. In 1882, Tewfiq installed as puppet ruler in newly occupied territory.
33
Gladstone impact/role concerning Berlin Conference?
Surprisingly, more territory was acquired to Empire under Gladstone than under Disraeli. In 1884-5, the Berlin Conferences led Gladstone to establish protectorates in Somaliland and Bechuanaland due to maintain influence in region. Tswana being left in power in British Bechuanaland suggests Gladstone was a ‘reluctant imperialist’,
34
Gladstone involvement with Germany/ New Guinea?
Hesitancy also exhibited when Germany claimed Pacific Island of New Guinea in 1884. Gladstone resisted intervention and prospect of direct confrontation with Germany. Instead premier of Queensland ordered occupation of the Island’s south eastern zone to establish British control.
35
Gladstone and home rule for Ireland?
Supported Home Rule for Ireland, again confirming reluctant imperialism.
36
Who were the Irish nationalists?
The only truly imperialist party in Parliament
37
In the first half of the 19th century, how did Britain respond to Empire?
- In mid-19th century, British government didn’t pursue an active role due to poor communication, long distances involved and lack of institutions to deal with Empire.
- The Empire was source of pride however, trade and access to markets was biggest concern.
- 1870’s saw a shift in intensity around Empire. Central to this was concern about other imperial powers. Other nations began to grow industrially increasing competition with Britain. Tariffs in US and Europe prevented British goods from flooding market. Britain had to look elsewhere.
38
Imperialism in Britain: Popular Press?
- Reporting in the growing popular press saw the value of stories of the exotic, of heroism and of national one-
upmanship
- 1857 – press had shown power to influence public in reporting of Indian Mutiny. British horrified by stories of massacres and tortures, e.g. at Cawnpore and thrilled by those of brave soldiers, such as Major-General Havelock who recaptured Cawnpore. Press turned him to hero and statue of him was erected in Trafalgar Square.
- 1882 – Arabi Pasha’s revolt in Egypt well reported, gazettes wrote of ‘Moslem mob’ killing ‘all the Christians they could find’
39
Imperialism in Britain: Education?
The Education Act of 1870 had increased national literacy rates so more people had access to stories of Empire and made the public more politically aware
40
Imperialism in Britain: Imperial Heroes?
- The British were horrified by stories of massacres and tortures at Cawnpore during the Indian mutiny Major-
General Henry Havelock recaptured Cawnpore in July and Lucknow in September 1857. He was considered a
national hero and after his death, the public paid for a statue of him to be erected in Trafalgar Square
* General Gordon was also considered a national hero
* The reporting of Arabi Pasha’s revolt in Egypt told the tale in such florid tones that Gladstone’s decision to
intervene was well supported
41
Imperialism in Britain: Literature?
Such as Rider Haggard’s King Solomon’s Mines and She were filled with tales of adventure in the Empire
42
Imperialism in Britain: Youth organisations/magazines?
* The new comic genre told tales of adventure and appealed to younger readers
* The Boy’s Own Paper first appeared in 1879 and featured storied portraying soldiers and bravery across the
globe. It included contributions from Colonel Baden-Powell who urged readers to lead ‘manly and Christian’
lives. It had a circulation of more than half a million
* School books also reflected similar themes
* Clubs and associations such as the Boys’ Brigade (1883) reinforced imperialistic values by offering military
training and by reminding young men what it meant to be part of the ‘glorious’ British Empire
43
Imperialism in Britain: Missionaries?
* By the 1870s stories of explorer and missionaries were being avidly read in British newspapers and magazines.
Heroic tales helped reinforce the idea of benevolence and superiority
* The British saw their empire as an ‘Empire of races’ and believed themselves infinitely superior to other
indigenous peoples in everything from their religion and morals to their laws and political institutions
* They also believed that they could ‘civilise’ indigenous people, leading them away from their savage existence
and turning them into law-abiding citizens
44
Imperialism in Britain: Science/ Darwin 'otherness'?
The view that white races were naturally superior was encouraged by the publication of Darwin’s On the
Origin of Species in 1859. Darwin never suggested it himself but his idea of natural selection was soon applied
to races Quasi-scientists justified their view by pointing to the disappearance of the ‘weak’ North Americans,
Maoris and Aborigines, while anthropologists seized on the theory to define racial attributes and categorise
different racial groups
45
What were 'Imperial Exhibitions'?
- Exhibition was held in 1851 and 1862 in South Kensington, featuring over 28,000 exhibitors from 36 countries. Represented wide range of industry, technology, arts and displayed 7000 exhibits from India alone.
- In 1877, a Nubian village, featuring animals and humans, were collected from Sudan and put on display at London’s Alexandra Palace.
- In 1886, Colonial and Indian Exhibition held in South Kensington to ‘give the inhabitants of the British Isles, to foreigners and to others, practical demonstration of the wealth and industrial development of the outlying portions of the British Empire.’ In this exhibition, Indians were brought over as ‘living exhibits’.
46
How did Imperial examples change British publics imperial views/ views on Empire?
- Helped reinforce the idea of Victorian benevolence. Jingoistic attitudes prevailed.
- British saw Empire as an ‘empire of races’ and believed themselves infinitely superior to indigenous peoples in everything from religion and morals to laws and political institutions. Accompanied by belief that bringing people into Empire could ‘civilise’ indigenous peoples, leading them away from ‘savage’ existence and turning them it hard-working, law abiding citizens – this however was rarely the case.
- Publications like Charles Darwin’s Origin of Species in 1859 led to belief of white superiority → theories of natural selection soon applied to humans. Quasi-scientists justified views by pointing to the eradication of Plains Indians, Maoris and Aboriginals in Australia.
