In class test 1 Flashcards
Weeks 1-5 content (177 cards)
1
Q
Define ‘directional terms’
A
Descriptive terms that enable clinicians to describe one body structure in relation to another
2
Q
Define ‘anatomical planes’
A
Hypothetical planes that transect the body in order to view structures of the body from different points of view
3
Q
Define ‘anatomical position’
A
The position which we describe all of the body and its part always; standing feet apart, arms by side, face, palms and feet facing forward
4
Q
Define ‘superior’
A
Toward the head (upper or above)
5
Q
Define ‘inferior’
A
Toward the feet (lower or below)
6
Q
Define ‘anterior’
A
Further to the front (in front of)
7
Q
Define ‘posterior’
A
Further to the back (in back of)
8
Q
What is another word for anterior?
A
Ventral
9
Q
What is another word for posterior?
A
Dorsal
10
Q
Define ‘medial’
A
Toward the midline of the body
11
Q
Define ‘lateral’
A
Toward the side of the body
12
Q
Define ‘proximal’
A
Closer to the axial body (towards the trunk)
13
Q
Define ‘distal’
A
Further from the axial body (further from the trunk)
14
Q
Define ‘superficial’
A
Closer to the surface of the body
15
Q
Define ‘deep’
A
Further from the surface of the body
16
Q
Define ‘supine’
A
Laying face up
17
Q
Define ‘prone’
A
Laying face down
18
Q
Explain the frontal plane
A
Divides the body into front and back
19
Q
Explain the sagittal plane
A
Divides body into left and right
20
Q
Explain the transverse plane
A
Divides body into upper body and lower body
21
Q
In the frontal plane, movements occur around which axis?
A
Sagittal axis
22
Q
In the sagittal plane, movements occur around which axis?
A
Frontal axis
23
Q
In the transverse plane, movements occur around which axis?
A
Longitudinal axis
24
Q
What are the four key tissues and what are their functions?
A
Epithelial (protects, secrets, absorbs), connective (protects supports, binds), muscular (movement, stabilizes joints), nervous (impulses for internal communication)
25
Name the term used for the region of the entire head
Cephalic
26
Name the term used for the region of the forehead
Frontal
27
Name the term used for the region of the back of the head
Occipital
28
Name the term used for the region of the eyes
Orbital region
29
Name the term used for the region of the nose
Nasal region
30
Name the term used for the region of the mouth
Oral region
31
Name the term used for the region of the neck
Cervical
32
Name the term used for the region of the chin
Mental region
33
Name the term used for the region of the ear
Octic
34
Name the term used for the region of the cheek
Buccal
35
Name the term used for the region of the shoulder blade
Scapular region
36
Name the term used for the region of the upper arm
Brachial region
37
Name the term used for the region of below the elbow
Antebrachial
38
Name the term used for the region of the entire hand
Manus
39
Name the term used for the region of the highest point on the shoulder blade
Acromial region
40
Name the term used for the region of the back of the elbow
The olecranal region
41
Name the term used for the region of the bend of the elbow
The antecubital region
42
Name the term used for the region of the wrist bones
Carpal
43
Name the term used for the region of the bones of the hand
Metacarpals
44
Name the term used for the region of the fingers
Digital region
45
Name the term used for the region of the thumb
Pollex
46
Name the term used for the region of the anterior side of the hand
Palmer region
47
Name the term used for the region of the entire chest
Thoracic region
48
Name the term used for the region of below the chest
Abdominal region
49
Name the term used for the region of below the abdominal
Pelvic region
50
Name the term used for the region of the breast bone
Sternal
51
Name the term used for the region of the breast
Mammary
52
Name the term used for the region of the chest
Pectoral
53
Name the term used for the region of the armpit
Axillary region
54
Name the term used for the region of where your legs meet your body
Inguinal region
55
Name the term used for the region of the spine
Vertebral region
56
Name the term used for the region of the neck
Cervical region
57
Name the term used for the region of the middle of the spine
Thoracic region
58
Name the term used for the region of lower back
Lumbar region
59
Name the term used for the region of the butt
Gluteal region
60
Name the term used for the region of the tailbone
Sacral
61
Name the term used for the region of the hip
Coxal region
62
Name the term used for the region above the knee
Femoral region
63
Name the term used for the region below the knee
Crucal region
64
Name the term used for the region of the foot
Pedal
65
Name the term used for the region of the front of the knee
Patellar
66
Name the term used for the region of the back of the knee
Popliteal
67
Name the term used for the region in the back of the calf muscle
Sural region
68
Name the term used for the region of below the knee on the outer leg
Fibular
69
Name the term used for the region of the nakle bones
Tarsals
70
Name the term used for the region of the heel bone
Calcaneal
71
Name the term used for the region of the toes
Digital
72
Name the term used for the region of the big toe
Hallux
73
Name the term used for the region of the body of the foot
Metatarsal
74
Name the term used for the region of the bottom of the foot
Planter
75
Define cutaneous membrane
Dry membrane that covers the outer surface of the body ie. skin
76
Define mucous membrane
Wet membrane that lines cavities exposed to the body’s exterior
77
Define secrous membrane
Wet membrane that lines cavities closed to the body’s exterior
78
Define 'angular movement'
Movements that increase or decrease the angle between bones, and occur across multiple body regions
79
Define 'special movement'
Movements that are specific to one or two body regions only
80
List and define three coronal/frontal plane angular movements
Adduction: moving a limb toward the midline
Abduction: moving a limb away from the midline
Lateral flexion: bending sideways (only relates to the vertebral column)
81
List and define two sagittal plane angular movements
Flexion: decreasing the angle between two bones
Extension: increasing the angle between two bones
82
List and define 3 transverse plane angular movements
Rotation: turning a bone around its longitudinal axis
Internal rotation: turning a bone towards the midline
External rotation: turning a bone away from the midline
83
List and describe 3 special movements that occur on the coronal/frontal plane
Elevation and depression: gliding body part superiorly or inferior, respectively
Radial and ulnar deviation: moving wrist towards radius or ulna, respectively, turning the thumb in is ulnar and turning the thumb out is radial
Inversion and eversion: tilting the sole of the foot medially or laterally, respectively
84
Name and describe one special movement that occurs on the sagittal plane
Dorsiflexion and plantarflexion; moving the ankle upwards or downwards, respectively
85
What are the five main movements of the jaw?
Depression
Elevation
Protrusion
Retrusion
Lateral deviation
86
Describe what radiography is
A type of imaging that produces 2 dimensional images formed via the use of x-rays
87
Does radiography use radiation
Yes
88
What are the uses of a radiograph?
To assess bones, organs and dense structures
89
Pros and cons of radiography?
Pros: quick and low expertise required, inexpensive and easily accessible
Cons: 2D image and low resolution, radiation exposure
90
Describe 'videofluroscopy' including its uses, pros, cons and the types
sing ionising radiation (x-rays to view internal human anatomy, dense structures appear bright)
Uses: bones organs, dense structures
Pros: real time image, quick and low expertise required, inexpensive and easily accessible
Cons: 2D image and radiation exposure
Types: modified barium swallow (MBS)
91
Describe a CT scan including its uses, pros, cons and the types
3 dimensional images formed via the use of ‘x-rays’ (radiation), dense objects appear bright
Uses: bones, organs, dense structures
Pros: 3D image, deep view, high resolution, relatively quick, cheap (bulk billed), reasonably accessible
Cons: very high radiation exposure, reasonably expensive and high expertise required
Types: with or without contrast
92
Describe an MRI scan including its uses, pros, cons and the types
3 dimensional images formed via the use of magnetic materials (no radiation)
T1-weighted; fat appears bright, T2-weighted: water appears bright
Uses: tissues containing fluid
Pros: 3D image, deep view and high resolution, no radiation exposure
Cons: Inaccessible, slow (45 min), expensive and high expertise required, claustrophobia
93
Describe an ultrasound scan including its uses, pros, cons and the types
2 or 3 dimensional images formed via the use of ultrasound waves (no radiation).
Dense objects appear bright
Uses: soft tissues, organs, superficial structures
Pros: ‘real time’, dynamic, inexpensive, quick, no radiation exposure
Cons: low resolution, superficial viewing only, high expertise required
94
Define eukaryotic cells
Plant and animal cells with a nucleus and membrane-enclosed organelles
95
Define prokaryotic cells
Unicellular organisms without a nucleus or membrane-enclosed organelles
96
List three things that all cells have
a cell membrane, cytoplasm, and genetic material
97
Describe lipids and their function in the cell
Hydrophobic tails, hydrophilic heads
Functions: physical barrier, selective permeability, communication, cell recognition
98
Name the two types of proteins which assist with transport in the cell
Channel or carrier proteins
99
What is the function of proteins in the cell?
Transport, cell-to-cell joining, communication, cell recognition
100
What is the function of carbohydrates in the cell?
Cell-to-cell joining (adhesion), communication, cell recognition, physical barrier
101
What is the function of the endoplasmic reticulum?
Storage, metabolism, protein synthesis
102
What is the function of the mitochondria?
Produces energy through aerobic metabolism
103
What is the function of the golgi apparatus?
- contains transport vesicles that allow for the processing of proteins
- exocytosis
104
Lists three features that make up the nucleus
- nuclear envelope
- chromatin
- nucleolus
105
What is the function of the nucleus?
To produce DNA (instructions for protein synthesis)
106
What are the seven types of functions that cells can perform?
1. connectivity
2. transport
3. movement
4. control
5. defence
6. reproduction
7. storage
107
Define diffusion
The movements of solutes across a semipermeable membrane from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration; simple, facilitated, channel-mediated, carrier-mediated
108
Define simple diffusion
A fat-soluble substance crosses the plasma membrane on its own
109
Define facilitated diffusion
Fat insoluble substance requires facilitated diffusion to cross the membrane
110
What are the two types of facilitated diffusion?
Carrier-mediated diffusion: The carrier binds to the substance causing the carrier to change shape
Channel-mediated diffusion: the substance travels through the channel protein
111
Define osmosis
the movement of water across a semipermeable membrane from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
112
Explain 'hypotonic solution'
Diluted solution with a lack of solute (CELL WILL SWELL AS WATER MOVES IN)
113
Describe 'isotonic solution'
Normal; cell with remain the same
114
Descibe 'hypertonic solution'
Concentrated; cell with shrink as WATER MOVES OUT
115
Define 'active transport'
The movement of solutes across a semipermeable membrane from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration; requires ATP
116
Describe the process of the 'sodium potassium pump'
1. ATP binds to the protein pump
2. Intracellular sodium binds to the carrier protein pump
3. ATP hydrolyses into ADP (energy is released)
4. The carrier protein pump changes shape, sodium is released out of the cell
5. 2 Extracellular potassium binds to the carrier protein pump
6. The carrier protein pump changes shape, and potassium is released into the cell
117
Define 'vehicular transport'
the movement of vesicles across an impermeable membrane; endocytosis and exocytosis
118
Define endocytosis
Process the cell uses to engulf extracellular material
119
Define 'exocytosis'
Process the cell uses to expel material into the extracellular space
120
Name and explain the three types of endocytosis
Phagocytosis; is used by white blood cells that look for debris, bacteria, etc.; is taken into the cell and is digested and broken down
Pinocytosis; the cell ‘drinks’ (nonspecific), the cell plasma membrane invaginates → forms a vesicle
Receptor-mediated endocytosis; specific receptors, receptors and molecules are separated so that molecules can be digested and receptors can be reused
121
Briefly explain the process of exocytosis
Starts in Golgi
Takes proteins, lipids, and hormones from rough and smooth ER and forms vesicles
Uses ATP to move vesicles into the extracellular space
122
Describe 'interphase' as a step in the cell cycle
Interphase: happens before mitosis
Nucleus is intact
Uncoiled form of DNA (Chromatin)
The cell replicates its chromatin so that there are identical sister chromatids
This is important so that the identical daughter cells can be identical
123
Identify and explain the 4 phases of mitosis
Prophase; protein synthesis + DNA replication
Chromatin coils and forms chromosomes
The nucleus disintegrates
Spindle apparatus forms
Metaphase
Chromosomes line up down the middle of the cell
Anaphase
The sister chromatids are separated from each other and pulled to different ends of the cell
Telephase
Chromosomes uncoil, the nucleus returns, the spindle apparatus breaks down, cell divides in half (cytokinesis)
124
Describe epithelial tissue and its function
Tightly packed cells
Apical free surface
Basal (deep) surface
Lack blood vessels
Functions; provides protection, sensory functions, secretions, absorption
Classification of epithelial tissue is based on: cell shape
125
What are the three types of epithelial cells?
Squamous- thin and flat
Cuboidal: cube shaped
Columnar: more tall than wide
126
Describe stratified vs simple epithelial
Stratified: two or more cell layers
Simple: one cell layer
127
Which tissue is the most abundant and widely distributed tissue in the body?
Connective tissue
128
Name three types of loose connective tissue and an example for each
1. Areolar; example; mucous membrane
2. Adipose; example; subcutaneous tissue
3. Reticular; example; lymphoid organs
129
Name three types of dense connective tissue and an example for each
1. Irregular; example; joint capsules
2. regular; tendons
3. elastic; elastic membranes in arteries
130
Define cartilage tissue
A tough, flexible tissue that typically resists forces and provides support
131
Name three types of cartilage and provide an example for each
1. Hyaline; example; costal cartilage
2. Elastic; example; ear cartilage
3. Fibrocartilage; example; intervertebral discs
132
Name four bone cells and their functions
Osteocytes: monitoring cells
Osteoclasts: bone-forming cells
Osteoclasts: bone reabsorption cells
Osteoprogenitor cells: bone stem cells
133
Identify and explain the two primary processes that are responsible for bone formation
Endochondral ossification: long bone formation derived from hyaline cartilage
Intramembranous ossification: flat bone formation derived from fibrocartilage
134
Describe plasma (relative to blood) and explain it's function
- Makes up 55% of whole blood
- Includes nutrients, gases, electrolytes, water, waste
Functions: REGULATION --> maintain body temp, pH,fluid volume (eg. blood pressure)
135
Describe the 'buffy coat' in relation to blood and explain its function
- <1% of whole blood
- Made of white blood cells and platelets
Function --> PROTECTION; prevents blood loss (platelets), defends against infection (leukocytes)
136
Describe erthrocytes (red blood cells) and explain their function
- make up 45% of whole blood
- biconcave discs of hemoglobin
FUNCTION: TRANSPORT-->
- delivering oxygen from lungs and nutrients from digestive system to body cells
- Transports and eliminates metabolic waste (eg. C02
- Transports hormones from endocrine organs to target organs
137
What are the three types of muscles?
Skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, cardiac muscle
138
Define skeletal muscle and explain its function
Striated muscle found around the skeleton and responsible for:
Voluntary movement
Maintaining posture and body position
Stabilising joints
Thermoregulation
139
Define 'smooth muscle'
Non straited muscle found predominantly in hollow organs of the body and responsible for involuntary visceral functions
140
Define cardiac muscle
Straited muscle found only within the walls of the heart responsible for the involuntary contractions of the heart
141
What are the four supporting cells of the central nervous system and what are their functions?
Oligodendrocytes: produce myelin
Microglial cells: tissue regenerations
Astrocytes: neuronal support and controls blood brain barrier
Ependymal cells: Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) regulation
142
Name the two supporting cells of the Peripheral Nervous System and their functions
Satellite cells; tissue regeneration
Schwann cells: produce myelin
143
What makes up white matter?
- myelinated axons
144
What makes up grey matter?
- unmyelinated axons
- cell bodies
- neuroglia
145
Identify and describe the three phases of tissue repair in relation to skin
Inflammation:
1. Trauma evokes an immune response (inflammatory chemicals)
Clotting seals injured skin to prevent infection (forms a scab)
2. Granulation tissue formation
Capillary ingrowth and fibroblast activity leads to new tissue formation (ie. epithelial tissue)
3. Regeneration (scar tissue formation)
New tissue thickens and matures forming scar tissue
146
What are the 5 cardinal signs of inflammation?
Pain
Heat
Redness
Swelling
Loss of function/movement
147
Identify and describe the four stages of bone repair
1. Hematoma forms; bleeding, inflammation and blood clots form (happens within hours)
2. Soft callus; capillary ingrowth, osteoblast activity (happens within days)
3. Bony callus; spongy bone formation; endochondral ossification (happens within weeks)
4. Remodelling; compact bone formation (happens within months)
148
Name 9 fracture classifications and their meanings
1. Open (compound); open wound
2. Close (simple); no open wound
3. Partial (incomplete); fracture does not transect the entire bone width
4. Complete; fracture that transects entire bone width
5. Stable; fracture that has not displaces usual alignment
6. Unstable; fracture has displaced usual alignment
7. Stress; fracture from repetitive overuse
8. Pathological; fracture caused by other underlying pathology (eg. cancer)
9. Avulsion; fracture characterized by a fragment of bone where a tendon or ligament is attached that has been pulled away from the rest of the bone
149
Name 5 types of bone and one example of each
1. Long (eg. femur, tibia)
2. Short (eg. tarsal bones)
3. FLat (cranial bones)
4. Irregular (eg. pelvis)
5. Sesamoid (eg. patella)
150
Name 6 function of bones and an example for each function
1. Protection: eg. cranium
2. Anchorage: eg. ALL BONES
3. Hormone production: eg. all bones!
4. red blood cell production: long bones -- spongy bone
5. Fat and mineral storage; eg.long bones -- spongy bone
6. Support; eg. vertebra, ribs, pelvis, femur etc.
151
Define periosteum in relation to bones on a microscopic level
outermost membrane of the bone
152
Define endosteum in relation to bones on a microscopic level
The membrane within the bone
153
Name four bone cells (microscopic level) and their function
Osteocytes: monitor and maintain healthy bone matrix
Osteoblasts: bone building cells (formation)
Osteoclasts: bone destroying cells (reabsorption)
Osteogenic cells: Stem cells that differentiate into osteoblasts
154
Outline the steps of endochondral ossification and the week in which they occur from infancy to adolescence
Week 9-12: bone collar forms around diaphysis and medullary cavity forms within diaphysis
Week 12-38: spongy bone forms within diaphysis and epiphyses appear
Childhood to adolescence: epiphyses ossify and epiphyseal plates appear
155
Define intramembranous ossification
Bone formation via fibrous cartilage
Cranium and clavicles only (flat bones mostly)
156
Define endochondral ossification
Bone formation via hyaline cartilage
All bones except cranium & clavicles
157
Outline the steps of intramembranous ossification
- ossification centre emerges within fibrous connective tissue
- spongy bones forms and eventually is replaced by compact bone and surrounded by periosteum
158
Define deposition in relation to bone
the process of new bone formation- osteoblasts
159
Define reabsorption
the process of bone destruction- osteoclasts
160
List the elements which make up the vertebral column
CERVICAL:
C1- C7 --> supports the neck
C1: ATLAS --> allows you to nod your head
C2: AXIS --> allows you to shake your head
THORACIC:
T1-T12
LUMBAR:
L1-L5
SACRAL:
S1-S5 --> connects the spine to the hip bone
COCCYX:
4 fused vertebrae
161
Explain the function of intervertebral discs
Provide cushioning and prevent the bones from rubbing together
ALSO NOTE: There's no intervertebral disc between C1 and C2
162
Name 5 unique characteristics of cervical vertebra
1. kidney shaped vertebral body
2. triangular vertebral foramen
3. bifid spinous process
4. transverse foramen
5. articular facet orientation (superior to inferior)
163
Name 4 unique characteristics of thoracic vertebra
1. circular vertebral body with two superior an two inferior costal facets
2. circular vertebral foramen
3. long sharp spinous process (project inferiorly)
4. articular facet orientation (anterior to posterior)
164
Outline the three types of ribs and their meanings
1. true ribs 1-7 --> directly attach to the sternum
2. false ribs 8-10 --> indirectly attach to sternum
3. Floating ribs 11-12 --> do not attach to sternum
165
Describe the hyoid bone and explain its function
A small U shaped bones situated in the midline of the neck anteriorly just above the larynx
FUNCTION: key attachment for the muscles of the tongue and pharynx
166
What are four key characteristics of skeletal muscle
Excitability: responsiveness to stimuli
Contractility: ability to generate force and shorten
Extensibility: ability to lengthen under tension
Elasticity: ability to recoil
167
Explain the stages of the cross bridge cycle (how a muscle contracts)
Cocking phase: myosin adopts high energy ‘cocked’ position
Bridge formation: myosin binds to actin
Power stroke: myosin pivots & pulls actin (towards M line) → energy released
Bridge detachment: Myosin detaches from actin
168
Explain the stages of the sliding filament model (how a muscle contracts)
Thin filaments move towards the M line
I band reduces in size
H zone disappears
Consecutive Z discs move closer together
169
Name the muscles responsible for depression of the mandible
Lateral pterygoid, digastric, mylohyoid
170
Name the muscles responsible for elevation of the mandible
masseter, temporalis, medial, pterygoid
171
Name the muscles responsible for protrusion of the mandible
lateral pterygoid
172
Name the muscles responsible for retrusion of the mandible
masseter, temporalis
173
In the neck, deep vertebral muscles serve what purpose?
Support head and stablize vertebral column
174
In the neck, the lateral/carniothoracic muscles serve what function?
Neck movement
175
In the neck, the hyoid muscles serve what function?
Stablise and mobilise hyoid bone during speech and swallowing
176
Explain suprahyoid muscles and their function
Four pharyngeal muscles located above the hyoid bone that stablise and elevate the hyoid during swallowing and speech
177
Explain infrahyoid muscles and their function
Four pharyngeal muscles located below the hyoid bone that stabilise and depress the hyoid during swallowing and speech
