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PE - Psychology Paper > Individual Differences > Flashcards

Individual Differences Flashcards

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1
Q

Personality definition

A

The sum of an individual’s characteristics which make them unique

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2
Q

Three theories of personality

A

Trait, social learning, interactionist

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3
Q

Trait theory description

A

Inherited or genetically predetermined qualities
Traits consistent in all situations
Personality or behaviour is generalised and predictable

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4
Q

Two interpretations of trait theory

A

Narrow band approach (Type A, Type B)
Eysenck (introvert/extrovert, stable/neurotic)

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5
Q

Type A personality

A

Works fast
Prone to excessive anxiety
Likes to take control
Highly competitive
Strong desire to succeed

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6
Q

Type B personality

A

Works more slowly
Can relax/less prone to stress
Does not like to be in control
Less competitive
Lacks a desire to succeed

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7
Q

Extrovert

A

Outgoing
Confident with other people
Low levels of internal arousal
Needs stimulation through external sources

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8
Q

Introvert

A

Inward focus
Prefer isolation
May lack confidence in social situations
High levels of internal arousal
Doesn’t require external stimulation

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9
Q

Stable

A

Has a predictable temperament
Moods are likely to be consistent
Appear calm and relaxed
Likely to be low in anxiety
Realistic and logical perception

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10
Q

Neurotic

A

Unpredictable in temperament
Moods are likely to be inconsistent
Prone to worry and high anxiety
Unrealistic or illogical perception of situations

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11
Q

Positives of trait theory

A

Personality/behaviour can be predicted
There is evidence of personality being influenced by genetics

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12
Q

Negatives of trait theory

A

Not just genetics that determines personality
Doesn’t account for how personality seems to change in different environments
Identical twins brought up in different environments do not demonstrate the same personality

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13
Q

Social learning theory description

A

Copying the behaviour of others
- more likely if model is significant or behaviour is reinforced
Behaviour is learnt from environment
Predictable if in the same situation/environment

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14
Q

Positives of social learning theory

A

Bobo doll experiment
Evidence for aspects of personality learned by copying

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15
Q

Disadvantages of social learning theory

A

Too simplistic
Siblings/identical twins don’t always have the same personality when brought up in the same environment
If true we would all have the same personalities as our role models

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16
Q

Interactionist theory description

A

Interaction or relationship between personality traits and the environment
Behaviour changing to the demands of the situation or environment
Combination of trait and social learning
Responses emerge from combination of personality traits and the environment
Unpredictable behaviour

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17
Q

Advantages of interactionist theory

A

Takes into account both traits and environment
Explains unpredictable behaviour and why people in the same environment behave differently

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18
Q

Disadvantages of interactionist theory

A

Focuses on society
Does not take into account individual psychology
Not objective

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19
Q

Anxiety definition

A

Negative emotional state associated with feelings of stress, overarousal or worry

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20
Q

Two types of anxiety

A

State and trait

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21
Q

State anxiety

A

An individual’s immediate but temporary level of anxiety in a particular situation

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22
Q

Trait anxiety

A

Global/general predisposition to be anxious

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23
Q

Two different areas of response to anxiety

A

Somatic and cognitive

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24
Q

Somatic response definition

A

Physical response

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25
Somatic response example
Increase heart rate, adrenaline, headaches
26
Cognitive response defintion
Thoughts or worries about abilities to complete a task successfully
27
Cognitive response example
Worry, self doubt, negative thougths
28
Characteristics of optimum level of arousal/anxiety
Aggression and power Increase confidence Increase motivation Increase concentration Increase energy levels Drive/determination to succeed Increase chance of success
29
Individual zone of optimal functioning definition
The level of stress/arousal that contributes to an athlete being at peak performance level
30
Athlete/skill that would have a low zone of optimal functioning
Fine skills - snooker Introvert Cognitive stage of learning
31
Athlete/skill that would have a moderate zone of optimal functioning
Sport with combination of gross and fine - cricket Extrovert/introvert Associate stage of learning
32
Athlete/skill that would have a high zone of optimal functioning
Gross skill - Weightlifting Extroverts Autonomous stage of learning
33
Aggression definition
Any behaviour that is intended to harm another individual by physical or verbal means outside the rules of the sport
34
Four theories of aggression
Instinct theory Social learning theory Frustration-Aggression hypothesis Aggressive cue hypothesis
35
Instinct theory
Proposed by Freud 'Aggression is inevitable as it is genetically inherited' Aggression is predictable Aggressive trait - death instinct Protective trait - life instinct
36
Positives of instinct theory
Explains why people get aggressive Simple to understand
37
Negatives of instinct theory
Too simple Identical twin experiment
38
Social Learning theory
Proposed by Bandura Aggression is learnt through copying others, particularly role models More likely to be repeated if reinforced by a role model More likely if social norm
39
Positives of social learning theory
Simple to understand Takes into account the environment
40
Negatives of social learning theory
Too simple Everyone would be identical to their role models if it was true
41
Frustration-aggression hypothesis
Frustration caused by the environment blocking goals of the performer triggers aggression
42
Stages of frustration-aggression hypothesis
Stimulus -> frustration -> aggression Success causes catharsis Unsuccessful or punishment loops back to frustration
43
Positives of frustration-aggression hypothesis
Clear links shown between stages Catharsis stage which allows for recovery Frustration can continue
44
Negatives of frustration-aggression hypothesis
Goal blocked doesn't always lead to frustration Personality/situation could change it Aggression can be seen after catharsis which contradicts
45
Aggressive cue hypothesis
Frustration leads to increased arousal which potentialises aggression
46
Stages of aggressive cue hypothesis
Frustration -> Increased arousal If there is a presence of an aggressive cue, aggression will be more likely
47
Aggressive cues
Weapons/objects Nature of sport Place/environment People/opponents Nature of event Perceived unfairness/officials Witnessing violence
48
Positives of aggressive cue hypothesis
Cue leads to aggression Increased arousal can lead to improved performance
49
Negatives of aggressive cue hypothesis
People get aggressive without cues Doesn't account for catharsis
50
Attitude defintion
Predisposition to act in a particular way towards something or someone in a specific situation Learned, typical response based on a belief about an attitude object
51
Factors leading to formation of attitudes
Past experience Role models Social group/peers Religion Education Cultural factors Media
52
Three aspects of the triadic model
Cognitive Affective Behavioural
53
Cognitive
Beliefs or thoughts a person has about the attitude object
54
Affective
Emotional aspects Good feeling or not Enjoyment will produce a positive emotional feeling
55
Behavioural
Response or behaviour towards attitude object If cognitive and affective are positive the response will be positive and vice versa
56
Methods of changing attitudes
Persuasive communication Cognitive dissonance
57
Persuasive communication
Changing an attitude using verbal persuasion
58
4 pillars of persuasive communication
Persuader Message Recipient Situation
59
Persuasive communication - persuader
Needs to have high status/be a role model - coach/parent
60
Persuasive communication - message
Message needs to be accurate, good quality, relevant, believable, well presented and positive
61
Persuasive communication - recipient
Easily changed attitude if the recipient wants to change it (understands why the change is needed)
62
Persuasive communication - situation
Recipient must feel comfortable, it must be given at the right time (after current attitude has had a negative effect or the new one has had a positive effect), other persuaders will improve likelihood, as will if the social group holds the new attitude
63
Cognitive dissonance definition
The discomfort or disharmony an individual feels when they hold two opposing ideas
64
Stages of cognitive dissonance in changing an attitude
Emotional discomfort through imbalance in triadic model Changing cognitive or affective component to match Brings components in line - removes discomfort The more uncomfortable the dissonance, the greater the desire to change the attitude
65
Motivation definition
The drive, energy and effort an individual applies to achieve a goal
66
Two types of motivation
Extrinsic and intrinsic
67
Intrinsic motivation
Drive form within a person the perform a task or activity for its own sake Performance driven by pursuit of personal satisfaction and challenge
68
Uses and effects of intrinsic motivation
Good for performers of all experience Success brings high level of personal satisfaction Helps performer set personal goals Leads to long lasting results Helps performer to sustain interest and continue participation
69
Extrinsic motivation
Drive to perform a task or activity in order to achieve a tangible reward Performance driven by external factors
70
Uses and effects of extrinsic motivation
Good for learners in cognitive stage Provides clear evidence of success often through tangible reward Helps recipient to gain status within peer group Effectiveness is short lived Tends to lose impact if opportunity for reward is taken away (NOT SUSTAINABLE)
71
Arousal definition
The level of excitement that a person feels before, during and after a sports event
72
Two types of arousal
Somatic and cognitive
73
Three arousal theories
Drive theory, inverted U theory, catastrophe theory
74
Drive theory description
As arousal increases so does the quality of performance (in a linear fashion)
75
Stages of learning in drive theory
Experienced athletes perform better as arousal levels increase Beginners perform worse with high levels of arousal
76
Strengths of drive theory
Simple to understand Clearly show relationship between arousal and performance Reliable by relating arousal to dominant response Accurate representation for professionals/extroverts (Team GB at London 2012) More likely to be accurate for gross/simple skills
77
Weaknesses of drive theory
Too simplistic Doesn't take into account individual differences Doesn't explain decline in performance at high arousal Doesn't explain professionals performing well at low arousal Doesn't acknowledge different types of arousal
78
Inverted U theory description
Under-arousal causes poor performance, performance increases as arousal does up to a optimum point or arousal leading to peak performance Over-arousal causes deterioration in performance
79
Strengths of inverted U theory
More realistic Optimum point of arousal seen in most sports performers Simple to understand and apply Optimal point can shift depending on individual differences
80
Weaknesses of inverted U theory
Too simple Doesn't consider different types of arousal Too even distribution of curve Performance drastically drops if over-aroused
81
Catastrophe theory description
As somatic arousal increases, quality of performance improves Optimal performance will only be achieved is cognitive arousal is kept low High cognitive and high somatic causes dramatic drop in performance (catastrophe) After catastrophe, performance can be regained if cognitive arousal is kept low If arousal increases after catastrophe, performance will deteriorate
82
Strengths of catastrophe theory
Realistic explanation for poor/out of character performance at a big event Shows sudden drop which is more likely than gradual decline Relationship of cognitive and somatic is shown Shows possibility of recovery with low cognitive arousal
83
Weaknesses of catastrophe theory
Not all performers experience a sudden drop in performance Optimum arousal may not be a midpoint Doesn't take into account the type of skill, individual differences, or level of performer Complicated to understand and apply

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