individual differences Flashcards
(141 cards)
1
Q
surface vs source trait
A
surface -> characteristics that can be observed from observable behaviours, easier, more
source -> most fundamental aspects - broad basic traits - universal and few
2
Q
definitions of personality
A
persistent patterns of thought, affect and behaviour
distinct from mood
is a dimension -> categorise to the degree you manifest a characteristic
3
Q
what are the scientific function of traits
A
description -> observation tool
prediction -> based of type of behaviour
explanation -> more recent aspect of personality study
4
Q
explain the lexical hypothesis of personality and who was involved
A
galton = 1000 words in dictionary corresponding to personality. if important and obervable = will show in language
Allport and Odbert = found 5404 words relating to personality
5
Q
how did raymond cattell make his personality theory
A
factor analysis to make 16 personality factors
used
L/life record data
Q data - self report
OT data - objective like RT
issue: too much correlation between traits
6
Q
what was eyesenk’s personality theory
A
secondary factor analysis
psychoticism, extraversion, neuroticism
7
Q
why was costa and mccrae’s personality theory accepted
A
first one to convincingly say that all other traits could be mapped onto big 5 - this united the previous theories that were arguing for 5
is also decomposable into finer facets, using the 5 as umbrella terms
8
Q
what did colin deyoung do with the big 5
A
make the big 2
characterised
stability = N, A, C
plasticity = E and O (need to incorporate novel info into that organisation, as the situation of the individual changes both internally and externally)
9
Q
what are the requirements for narrow personality traits
A
clear rationale
effective method of assessing position
literature explaining why ppl differ
be distinct from global psality models
evidence that it is new
10
Q
what unites extraversion and neuroticism
A
both associated with high emotion
extraversion = positive
neuroticism = negative
however - what one system is doing does not always dictate the other
11
Q
6 facets of extraversion
A
warmth, gregariousness, assertiveness, activity, excitement-seeking, and positive emotions
12
Q
6 facets of neuroticism
A
Anxiety, Self consciousness, Depression, Vulnerability, Impulsiveness (appears in other traits), Angry hostility
13
Q
what are the implications of extraversion
A
moderate heritability, observed across more cultures
can correlate to high salary, risk taking, sex interest, sociability
risks: less faithfull - bad for children
social does NOT mean nice or normal
14
Q
correlates of neuroticism
A
health, stress, relationship satisfaction, self-esteem, worry, anxiety and depression
15
Q
benefits of neuroticism
A
few accidents and less dangerous activity
genetic diversity
ego strength
16
Q
what did eyesenck think influenced his hypothesised personality traits
A
biology - cortical arousal and hormones, environment and evolution
17
Q
issues with eyesenck - personal and research
A
ignored failed replication
2019 - 62 for retraction
supported race science
oversimplified behaviours
18
Q
what is the arousal theory of extraversion
A
eyesenk 1967
proposed that ARAS system of different individuals that are high/low in extraversion operate at different levels
low extraversion = more active, want less stimulation
high E = less active, want more
moderate activity is pleasant but bad is super high/low
19
Q
what is the ARAS system
A
ascending reticular activating system
controls arounsal and wake/alertness in the brain
20
Q
evidence for arousal thoery
A
low e scorers appear to require higher dose of sedative drugs than extraverts to make them unconscious (but only if they score in moderate-high neuroticism) - already highly stimulated
21
Q
explain reinforcement sensitivity theory - bis and bas
A
RST
BAS - behavioural approach system. has reward sensitivity and impulsivity when high in N and E
BIS - inhibition. represents punishment sensitivity - increases when high in N and introversion. responds to stimuli that you need/want but contain potential threat.
produces vigilance, rumination, passive avoidance, anxiety. linked to septo-hippocampal system and the amygdala
22
Q
explain reinforcement sensitivity theory - FFFS
A
fight flight freeze system - responds to threatening, punishing or frustrating stimuli. Linked to the amygdala, hypothalamus and periaqueductal gray. Produces active avoidance (panic and flight) or attempted elimination (anger and attack).
23
Q
implication of the reinforcement sensitivity theory
A
reward signals lead to positive or negative affect
ind diffs in sensitivity to rewards is related to their susceptibility of positive affect and extraversion
sensitivity to punishment is related to susceptibility of negative affect and neuroticism
24
Q
mood induction as a double dissociation between extraversion and neuroticism
A
High extraverts responded stronger to both positive and negative feedback.
Introverts showed less change in mood across conditions.
High neuroticism individuals responded strongly to neg feedback
also started with a lower baseline mood than others and dropped further with negative feedback.
low in neuroticism = less affected by failure.
susceptibility to pos mood = E not N
to neg mood = N not E
25
what is the cybernetic big 5 theory - extraversion
extraversion relates to who is more motivated by the possibility of attaining a given reward and who gets more enjoyment out of a reward when attained
26
involvement of dopamine in reward
electrode stimulation in rats -> released in rawrd and exploration
27
two reward processing pathways
mesolimbic pathway = ventral tegmental area to the nucleus accumbens
mesocortical pathway: from ventral tegmental to pre frontal cortex
dopamine as neurotransmitter
28
individual differences in the dopamine reward system knutson et al 2001
individual differences in self reported happiness elicited by reward cues
nucleus accumbens fired more for large than small rewards
high extraversion more interested in reward
29
individual differences in the dopamine reward system wu et al 2014
replicating knutson
when participants were anticipating large gain left nucleus accumbens activity correlated significantly with the trait of positive arousal/extraversion. but it did not correlate with the trait of negative arousal/neuroticism
30
why are extraverts more attuned to reward? dopamine and opioids
may not just be dopamine but other neurotransmitters or endogenous opioids
wanting = dopamine
liking = opioid system
31
wu et al and neuroticism - loss game paradigms
hen participants were anticipating large monetary losses the right interior insula did correlate significantly with the trait of negative arousal.
here right antierior insula did not correlate with trait of positive arousal/ extraversion
32
what is the double dissociation between extraversion and neuroticism
reward vs punishment
reward in left nucleus accumbens = extraverts are more sensitive in their dopamine reward system
punishment in right anterior insula = neurotics more sensitive in salience and interoceptive system
which supports BIS and BAS
33
what is eyesenck's theory of neuroticism
N is determined by the interaction between limbic and ARAS
hypothalamus as a command centre communicating with the autonomic NS
34
patient SM
SM - bilateral amygdala destruction and calcification = no fear, no FFF response
35
amygdala and emotion
bilateral damage to the amygdala = struggle to recognise emotional expressions
36
link between amygdala and neuroticism
pos correlation between amygdala volume and neuroticism
associated with fear, anxiety, aggression and emotion
37
what is PANAS
positive and negative affect schedule -> which asks people how much they related to affects, moods etc and is a personality measure
measures
self rating
behavioural
performance - how long can you bear spider crawling up arm (risk)
implicit measures - IAT
38
what is a forest plot
graph that compares info from many individual studies - meta analyses
39
how to read forest plots
use 95% confidence intervals
shorter interval lines = more impactful
crossing line = agreement
bigger box = larger sample
diamond represents weighted average - touches vertical line = not sig
40
6 facets of openness
fantasy
aesthetics
feelings
ideas
actions
values
41
what does de young say about extraversion and openness
both reflect a general tendency towards exploration
O and intellect similar
E = general tendency towards behaviour exploration and reward sensitivity
O = cognitive exploration and sensitive to reward value of info
42
what kinds of creativity comes with openness and intellect
O - artistic
I - scientific
43
correlation with openness, years of schooling and G
around 0.3
44
what is the cognition of openness
divergent thinking -> through alternative use task
seeking novelty and complexity
semantic difference -> more openness = semantic distance - meaning unrelated things seem more related
45
what personality disorders are more associated with openness
psychoticism
schizotypal personality disorder
mad genius stereotype - psychopaths
bipolar are more creative
46
kyaga et al 2011 -> creativity and mental illness
swedish
inpatient treatment for schizophrenia, bipolar or depression between 1973-2003 (30yrs)
schizophrenia - not more creative jobs - but more artistic jobs
not in depression
47
kyaga et al 2013 follow up - creativity
individuals with creative professions were not more likely to suffer from disorders than controls except in cases of bipolar disorder
authors specifically associated
48
autism and creativity
creative profiles had high levels of detail and originality, but inhibited in fluency and flexibility
49
explain the mad genius paradox
creative people exhibit better mental health than non-creative
MOST creative - higher risk for illness than less creative
inverse power function
lotka's law -> small minority have the most output, large majority has smaller output
50
what is latent inhibition
familia stimulus takes a larger time to obtain means than new
-> dentist
pain on the 1st visit = easily feared
pain on 10th visit = harder to fear
51
what is low latent inhibition linked with
susceptibility to schizophrenia and psychosis
52
Granger et al 2020 - latent inhibition as a biomarker for schizophrenia
schizophrenics have deficits in selective attention -> bad LI = struggling to filter irrelevant info
dopamine hypoth of S = dopamine can enhance LI, a lack inhibits it
LI can help for early detection and diagnosis of Schizophrenia
53
creativity and latent inhibition carson et al 2003
high creativity better latent inhibition - figured out link between noise and disks in less trials -> had not filtered out white noise
IQ and moderating factors may allow the high creative to override a deficit in selective attentional procession with high functioning mechanism
54
what is the overlaps of creaivity and psychopatheology
attenuated latent inhibition
preference for novelty, hyperconnectivity
55
6 facets of agreeableness
trust, straightforwardness, altruism, compliance, modesty, and tender-mindedness
56
6 facets of conscientiousness
competence, orderliness, dutifulness, achievement striving, self-discipline, and deliberation
57
antisocial correlations between agreeable and conscientiousness
antisocial behaviour
C - think better and are deliberate
A - attending to suffering of others
58
what traits correlate with depression - dam et al 2021
low agreeable and conscientiousness, high neuroticism
all move in terms of stability
59
negative correlations of a and c
C, not A, predicts addictions, job/school performance and health
60
what predicts athletic performance
piedmont et al 1999
9 female athletes
conscientiousness sole predictor of actual games (8%) and 23% variance of coaches ratings with neuroticism
61
pros and cons of high conscientiousness
pros - healthy behaviours, increased life expectancy, strict morals
cons - decreased fitness, fewer short term mating episodes, ocd, perfectionism
62
pros and cons of agreeableness
pros - tom, harmony of friends, avoid conflict
cons - decreased fitness, neg associated with pay/creative accomplishment, excessive trust, excessive monitoring of others,
63
brain mechanisms to conscientiousness
frontal lobes - particularly ofc
when destroyed - car stealing! no more deliberations
frontal lobes damage relate to low C and strength of response is go/no go
64
aspects of impulsivity
impulsivity: perseverence, premeditation, urgency and sensation seeking
65
dorsolateral pfc and conscientiousness
involved in rule following and goal maintenance
66
conscientiousness and multicomponent behaviour
MCB - when people need to interrupt and chain diff actions to achieve higher task goal
Multicomponent behaviour was found to be selectively affected by C
Highly conscientious people showed a more effective, step-by-step processing strategy of different actions necessary to achieve a goal
is about prioritizing goals effectively
67
neural systems associated with conscientiousness and goal prioritisation
network synchrony between anterior insula, dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.
network significantly associated with C
overlapped with goal priority
THEREFORE Conscientiousness is related to functioning of the Goal Priority Network is the mechanism underlying c
68
TOM and agreeableness - nettle and liddle 2008
Agreeableness showed 0.48 positive, with social-cognitive ToM performance.
No significant correlation was found between Agreeableness and social-perceptual ToM performance.
high in Agreeableness are more adept at understanding others' thoughts and intentions, rather than interpreting emotional expressions.
69
TOM, A and IQ - allen et al 2017
TOM and a not related when intelligence is accounted for
high in compassion - greater in relationships
politeness might be neg related to mentalizing ability
instead, lying may be associated with high TOM ability and training
70
udochi et al - default mode network in TOM and agreeableness
increased activity in default mode network when person is focused internally, not externally
default network activation in response to social animations predicted better performance on social cognition tasks and, to a lesser degree, higher Agreeableness
71
TOM vs compassion vs empathy
TOM - socio-cog, taking perspective, thoughta and beliefs
compassion - complimentary social emotion, warmth and concern (other related)
empathy - sharing emotion and states (self related)
72
how does compassion, empathy and theory of mind operate independently
impairments of TOM in autism does not affect empathy
empathy deficits can still have TOM
Unique activity was observed in the ventral striatum for compassion but not in response to empathy.
Unique activity was observed in the anterior insula for empathy but not in response to compassion
73
what are the underpinnings of agreeableness
likely cognitive TOM ability and affective empathy
74
rank the five factor model most to least heritable in twin studies
openness
extraversion
conscientiousness
agreeableness and neuroticism together
75
heritability definition
proportion of variation in the characteristic that is associated with variation in genetic material
76
dopamine receptor variation and genes
people with at least one repeated allele in dopamine receptor gene = more novelty seeking
drd4 = sexual and promiscuity variation
drd474 = more sensitive to travel based reward
77
serotonin gene variation and neuroticism
5-HT T genotype
short/short and short/long serotonin transporter gene had higher neuroticism scores
also affects: suicidal ideation, depression and depressive episodes
78
impact of genetic variation in personality
poor replication
too few % explained and this may vary with sex, ethnicity etc
hard to reliably detect
79
what is the epigenome and epigenetic factors
genome = secondary layer of biochemical info that modify/marks genome in a way that alters instructions given by the DNA
factors = impact DNA and gene activation - control genes switching on and off
80
what is GWAS and what has it done for the nurture debate
genome wide association approach - setting markers across the genome
not found genetic basis of psality - missing heritability because we have over estimated heritability (even mz twins have cell replication mutations from 1st stages of development)
argue that we have massive polygenicity - multiple genes small effect
81
evidence for fast life history - nettle et al 2011
4 measures of parental investment/stability in first 7yrs, being breastfed, longest time separated from mum, dads role, house moves
all play a role in predicting age of 1st pregnancy
have faster life histories when less stability
82
cruelty in childhood and life history
maltreated girls reach pubertal maturity 8 months faster than normal
harsh parenting predict earlier periods and more sexual risk taking
doesn't apply to boys
83
what is the psychosocial acceleration theory
idea that early and promiscuous sexual behaviour is linked to early experience and harsher coniditions
84
animal support for life history speed
monkeys raised by a harsh mother (not necessarily birthed by) had higher stress response in 1st 3 years
more stress = more interested in children later in life
85
zwir et al 2020 - explaining the complex genetics of human charatcer
GWAS approach
42 sets of single nucleotide polymorphisms identified gene loci - which were associated with character profiles
meaning there were specific molecular processes to important processes: C/goal setting, N/self-reflection and A/empathy
study promoted the idea that small but significant environmental effects are distributed across multiple networks that influences people
86
how did gottfredson define intelligence in 1997
intelligence reflects a broader and deeper capability for comprehending surroundings -> making sense of concepts and figuring out what to do
87
positive vs negative eugenics
P - encourages "healthy and capable people" to have more children
N - the removal of unwanted genetics through sterilisation and institution
88
what does spearman's g factor do
- summarizes positive correlations among different
cognitive tasks, reflecting the fact that an
individual's performance at one type of cognitive
task tends to be comparable to his or her
performance at other kinds of cognitive tasks
- g factor typically accounts for around 50% of the variance in IQ test performance
89
what did the simon-binet intelligence scale measure and estimate
estimated mental vs chronological age
measured intelligence - but only on children with similar backgrounds and experiences - grammar school children
90
what is matrix reasoning and how is it measured
choosing what the missing picture is to complete a pattern
can be measured from children beginners to extremely complex
91
what are the components of the welscher adult intelligence scale (WAIS-iv)
matrix reasoning - choosing the missing part of a picture from 5 options
block design - timed correct responses to construct a model from coloured blocks
figure weights - what photo balances a scale
digit span - remembering a sequence backwards and forwards
letture number sequencing
codebreakers
finding similarities
92
what are the levels of intellectual ability
iii = g
ii = cognitive domains: wm, processing speed, perceptual reasoning and verbal comprehension
i = individual cognitive tests
93
explain salthouse 2004 and what they found out about hierarchical levels of intelligence
3 = general intelligence accounts for 50% varience in tests
2 = narrow abilities can relate to the specific work needed for a group of tests
1 = specific ability for a specific task
94
spearman and universality - wayne and burningham 2019
exploratory factor analysis - one single factor emerged from a majority - very similar to what is seen in western samples
likely a universal phenomenon in humans
95
general intelligence in dogs arden and adams 2015
can have a form of g - ind diffs even in same breed
dogs scores in one task can also account for others
96
wilson 2023 - testing the WAIS in neurodivergent populations
cautioned against using g and single factors
in autisim: typical verbal and non verbal reasoning
lower processing speed and slight working memory reduction
97
autistic children and intelligence underestimation - courchesne et al 2015
6 out of 30 children could complete any subsets
however in strength informed assessments could perform average or higher
98
is there a correlation between size, brain cells and iq?
No
neocortex brain cells in dead danish men aged 20-52
average iq = 94
- no correlation between iq and number of braincells. weak correlation between iq and brain weight
99
what brain areas have more white or grey matter in more intelligent men and women
women iq = more GM and WM in frontal language
men iq = more GM in posterior sensory integration
100
what were the findings from sea hero quest
racial differences, mostly because of wealth distribution
women's life experience matter - do better when less of a gender gap in society and in a wealthier country - more access to opportunity
101
what is the neural efficiency theory in intelligence - haier et al 1988 (PET) and 1992a/b (tetris)
some people have more efficient brains - therefore find tasks easier
negative correlation between glucose metabolic rate activity in the brain and raven matrices scored -> needed less "brainpower" in supra, mididi and infra - ventricular areas
learning to play tetris led to a decreased cerebral metabolism
this difference was larger in high iq people
102
intelligence in women - white matter and grey matter study
efficiency of white matter organisation and total grey matter predicts womens intelligence
men had no correlation with iq
103
functional connectivity and intelligence - finn et al 2015
idea of fire together wire together
connectivity patterns are unique and can predict levels of fluid intelligence measured with matrix reasoning
104
what is connectotyping in intelligence
is the distinct pattern of brain activity that characterises the way each person's mind works
implies that mental processes are not identical
happens in most sophisticated areas -> frontal and parietal areas
stable over time
family related connectotypes
105
bouchard and mcque 1981 - what are the correlations for iq between MZ and DZ twins, siblings and parent-child
MZ =0.86
DZ = 0.60
siblings = 0.47
parent child = 0.42
106
haworth et al 2010 - what % of the varience in intelligence is attributable to genes, non shared environment and sharent environment
54% genes
24% non-shared
22% shared
107
turkheimer et al 2003 - how do the effects of genotype and environment interact with SES
non linearly
lower SES families -> about 60% of variance in IQ was accounted for by shared environment, close to zero for genes
as SES goes up - heritability increases and environment goes down
means heritability isn't fixed and opportunity allows for more gene expression
108
what are the conclusions of heritability -> after race differences in bell curve IQ
black americans scored ~15points lower
heritability estimates the % of people's differences in IQ in a particular sample that is caused by their genetic differences
NOT how much of your IQ is due to genetics
109
what is the wilson effect in twins
MZ twins become more consistent with age, have parallel spurts and lags
DZ twins become less similar and eventually match other siblings the same amount as the twin
110
why do genetic differences count more for differences in cog ability as we age?
haworth: as we grow up, children select, change and create experiences that are partly based on genetics
bouchard: when younger, cognitive experiences are picked for you, when you're older, picked by you
-> if you seem smarter when younger - this may be targeted
111
what are SNPs
single nucleotide polymorphisms which come from single base pair substitutions
account for many genetic differences
112
Davies et al -> SNPs and intelligence
300,000 participants
concluded that intelligence is a polygenic trait, associated with many genetic variants in gene, in many locations that are not genes
25% variated in intelligence due to SNPs
how?
SNP variation at 709 genes linked
113
aside from intelligence, what else do SNPs relate to?
development of nervous system
overall health, weight, physical and mental illnesses
114
how are autism and IQ related by genetics
the same genetic variants related to autism are also related to higher IQ - r=0.12
115
other correlates of g -> nerve conduction, inspection time and reaction time
NC - how quickly electrical impulses travel along nerves, smarter = faster
IT - recognising what pattern you saw for short amount of time. smarter = faster
RT - smarter = faster
116
why might genetics be linked to health as well as intelligence
some that relate to health also relate to intelligence
for example, heart problems may damage intelligence and atherosclerosis can induce stress, inflammation etc
117
city street entrophy spatial navigation
more important for where you grew up
people are better at navigating environments that are similar to where you grew up (grid vs network)
more complex spatial environment when younger = better navigation
118
the birth order effects of intelligence
-> not every family
later born children not disadvantaged in health/developmentally, but parents were unavailable to provide as much cognitive support as they did with first born
differences seen from 1yrs, gap increases until school entry and remains significant
119
what are the main two studies used to understand life effects on intelligence
national longitudinal survey of youth 1979 (NLSY79)
interviewed on employment, income, welfare, education
children of the NLSY79
cog and non cog assessments, birth outcomes, home environment
demographic info
120
angelson et al 2001 -> stunted IQ development and breastfeeding duration
breastfed for less than 3 months had a larger risk of having below median test scores than those breastfed for over 6
121
mortenson and breastfeeding - how does duration effect IQ
measured breastfeeding length and IQ
<1month - >9 months increased IQ by 3-4 points even when controlling for SES, maternal education and IQ
122
what parts of development and ability is improved by breastfeeding
receptive language and higher order cognition like executive functions, planning and emotional functioning
breastfeeding over 15 months can also lead to greater myelination in somatosensory, auditory and language areas
123
victora et al 2015 - why are there long term effects on IQ from breastfeeding
3.76 IQ advantage
fatty acids in breast milk contributes to myelination, synapse formation and neural connectivity in early development
nutrients have brain growth factors
skin-to-skin contact also increases bonding and therefore cog/social development
124
general anesthesia in early childhood and effect on intelligence
before age 4
very small <1% decrease
125
early childhood lead levels and intelligence link
no safe levels of lead -> smallest amounts decreased IQ
black infants were more affected by white infants -> experienced more IQ loss in same exposure (-1.78 vs 1.21) as well as significant income differences
126
explain the anti-flynn effect
21st century stagnation and reduction in IQ in comparison to the 20th century increases
potential causes = less emphasis on abstract reasoning in education - less fluid intelligence, screen time, pollutant exposure, socio economic issues
127
what does the flynn effect show in kenya
may relate to health and resources
significant family size reduction and hookworm decrease linked with better raven's verbal meaning and digit span scores
128
why is the anti-flynn effect NOT due to genetics and immigration
the same families over time experience the same effects -> must be environmental
not intelligence breeding
129
what personality traits are correlated with intelligence and academic ability
the relationship between intelligence and academic ability stronger when high conscientiousness and lower neuroticism
130
working memory vs intelligence
focus of intelligence drives relationship between working memory and g
working memory can help predict intelligence best in 6th and 8th grade children
131
what are the lothian birth cohorts
scottish mental survey
1st tested 1932
2nd tested 1947
follow up from late 1990s to understand intelligence and life outcomes
132
correlation between clever children and clever adults
over 0.6
not perfect stability, but tended to do slightly better as adults
both would do well
133
explain cognitive reserve
ability to function despite of cognitive decline
can be due to activity, psychology and biology, bilingualism can delay Alzheimer's onset
134
the relationship between intelligence and educational outcomes - deary et al 2007
IQ at age 11 was a powerful predictor of GCSE attainment
accounts for >50% variation
135
the relationship between job success and intelligence
positive
more relevant for complex professions
also best predictor of job progress and who benefits from extra training
136
what does emotional evidence predict
better social and work relationships
detecting personal heartbeat variation
understanding of emotional consequences
lower distress
137
how can intelligence predict health
every standard deviation increase in IQ is associated with a 32% decrease in mortality risk 20yrs later
in the second lothian cohort -> higher IQ were less likely to die, correlating most strongly with stroke, heart disease and cardiovascular issues
138
IQ and mental illnesses
lower childhood IQ is associated with a larger risk of schizophrenia, PTSD, depression and overall mental health difficulties
139
childhood cognitive ability linked with self harm and suicide later in life
Analysis adjusted for childhood and adulthood socioeconomic conditions
Higher childhood intelligence was significantly associated with reduced risk of self-harm but not suicide risk
140
childhood intelligence and depression risk later in live
higher childhood intelligence had reduced depression risk for hospital admissions but not prescribed drugs
141
why do correlations between health outcomes and intelligence exist? 4 possibilities
1. early life and illness
2. how brains and bodies are put together
3. health literacy
4. socio-economic factors
