individual differences lecture 1-4 Flashcards
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religion and religiousness definitions
religion = an organized system of beliefs, practices and symbols designed to enable closeness to god.
religiousness = the degree of one’s involvementand personal significance attatched to such a system.
religious beliefs: Ellis (1980’s)
= a belief in a divine or superhuman power/powers to be obeyed and worshipped as the creators and rulers of the universe.
is this irrational?
- supports the idea that we need to feel love by a significant figure, can we live in a world where we are not accepted by others?
- achieving inside the church means that failure outwith does not matter?
- concept of sin and punishment, promotes shame if we go agaisnt our religion
- we can only regulate our emotions if we turn to God
- God can protect us from bad things
measurable dimensions of religiousness
- faith
- rituals
- experiences
- religious knowledge
- community
types of religiousity
intrinsic religiosity
- religion is the framework for all aspects of ones life
- living ones religion
- negatively correlates with depression, anxiety, obsessions and compulsions
- positively correlated with self-control, active coping and self-esteem.
- better self acceptance?
- less liekly to be divorced, lower smoking and alcohol levels
extrinsic religiosity
- allows us to be part of an in-group
- social, every so often “to make friends”
- using their religion
- both extrinsic and intrinsic have been critisised for being too simplistic.
self-determination theory
how we endorse our religious values affects our behaviours.
identified religiosity
= personal convictions deeply valued
individuals consciously choose to align with and live by their religious principles because they find them personally meaningful, rather than because of external pressures or obligations.
- positive effect on mental health, self esteem, and psychological adjustment.
- more tolerance and pro-sociality?
introjected religiosity
= socially pressured beliefs, need for approval from others, feel they “should” or “must”.
- negative effects on mental health, self esteem and psychological adjustment
more about seeking approval from in-groups, more prejudice towards others?
measuring religiousity
- scales and questionairres used
- I/E-R scales determine one of four religious subtypes.
- the christian religious internalization scale is used to measure introjected and identified religiosity
attitudes and behaviours in the context of religiosity
- belief in God significantly positively correlated with prosocial behaviour.
- religious participants were more likely thsn non-religious participants to engage in prosocial behvaiour, their reasons were not due to just “being free” when asked by a student to help them with their masters project.
- unkind answers were more likely in low/non-religious participants.
- if beliefs do not align with own, behaviours change towards outgroups. (higher aggression)
- example ->
new religious movements (cults)
- gives a sense of belonging and identitiy, commitment implies importance, provides direction andd guidance in life.
- reasons for leaving: loss of faith, hierachy conflict, wanting to be in touch with family
- reasons for staying: need to belong, intensity of emotions, relationships that have been built, had distanced themselves from family/jobs
- can plead insanity for violent crimes carried out under beliefs -> not guilty
- cult critics; think they are psychologically harmful
- sympathizers: represent an alternative cult.
equality act
9 protected characteristics
- age, disability, gender reassignment, marriage and civil partnership, pregnancy and maternity, race, religion or belief, sex, and sexual orientation
religion as a protected characteristic
having a religion or not having one
-> may be discriminated against for recruitment, dress code, time off work for religious reasons
what does religion generally give us?
- sense of meaning/ purpose
- social support
- healthier lifestyles
- care and concern for others
- private coping through prayer etc
when things are going well in religious life
- general meaning and hope
- protection against depression
- Religion negatively correlates with vulnerability to hopelessness and suicidal thinking
- Religiosity reduces death anxiety
deviations from religious norms
- backsliding, doubt, feelings of abandonment
- poorer mental health (guilt, shame, depression)
- often linked to extrinsic religiosity
- religious doubts associated with increased age after experiencing loss
- higher distress, depressive symptoms and anxiety in protestants who didn’t attend church regulary, read bibe and pray regulary compared to those who did (study).
scrupulosity
= a subtype of OCD where religion and OCD intersect.
- religion is a common theme in obsessions
- doubt/ fear of commiting sin -> punishment from ones God
- rules/ structure
- type of religiosity
- increased scrupulosity predicted decreased quality of life, increased anxiety and depression -> is this due to fear of sin?, perceived failures?
cognitive and behavioral components of scrupulosity
cognitive:
- pathological obsessions relating to moral/religious issues
- extreme tunnel vision of religious issues
- guilt/ responsibilities
- moral rumination (repetitive behaviours)
behavioural;
compulsive confessions
compulsive rituals (prayer)
social isolation
affective components - shame, uncertainty
mental contamination
= obsessive thoughts can arise without coming into contact with a physical contaminant
- type of scrupulosity
- perceived impurity, guilt
adaptive and maladaptive perfectionism
- Adaptive perfectionism= set high goals and personal standards
leads to higher self esteem, quality of life, lower anxiety an scrupulosity. - Maladaptive perfectionism= unrealistic standards, need to be in control (like scrupulosity)
religion and the big 5 personality traits
agreeability and conscientiousness -> positively correlated with religiosness:
-Conscientiousness are more rule conformant, more likely to stay faithful (to a faith/religion)?
- Agreeableness could be seen as a motivator for, e.g. kindness, altruism, forgiveness, and love: people might move into religiousness
- Openness( can conflict with religiousness due to confinements of religious thinking, but may predispose people to religion)
Basic religious beliefs negatively correlated with neuroticism and positively correlated with O,C,E,A
personality in adolescents
-Religiousness is typically inversely related to psychoticism
- Increased religiosity associated with lower levels of risk behaviors in young adults
- Increased religiosity associated with lower anxiety and depression/ higher self esteem
non clinical anxiety
state anxiety (1) = a temporary emotional state in response to the presence of threatning stimuli
trait anxiety (2) = characteristic pattern of a heightened level of arousal to a wide variety of stimuli attributed to an internal condition of the individual.
- both types can be measured using 20 Q questionairre
- state is how you feel in the momment
- trait is how you generally feel
Spielbergs state-trait anxiety inventory can be used to measure state of trait.
anxiety disorders- generalised anxiety disorder
DSM-5:
- persistent worry for over 6 months about many events/activities
- trouble controlling said worry
- 3+ of restlessness, tires easily, irritability, muscle tension, sleep disturbance
- significant impairment in daily life
cognitive factors:
“what if..”
disturbed thought proccess (maladaptive assumptions)
interpret an event as threatning -> anxiety aroused -> fear is experienced -> anxiety is provoked.
- 2x as many females
- high association with depression
