Inductive Arguments

Question 1

What is the difference between a deductive and inductive argument?

Answer 1

• Deductive: creating inferences by going from general premises to specific conclusions (top-down reasoning)
• Inductive: takes specific conclusions and uses them to create general inferences (bottom-up reasoning)

Question 2

What does it mean for an argument to be strong?

Answer 2

Provides probable evidence for the conclusion that is presented

Question 3

What does it mean for an argument to be cogent?

Answer 3

An inductive argument that contains true premises

Question 4

What are the various types of inductive arguments?

Answer 4

Causal, sign, generalization, and analogy

Question 5

What is a causal argument?

Answer 5

Looks for cause-effect connections rather than patterns

Question 6

What is a sign argument?

Answer 6

Conclusions are drawn about phenomena based on events that precede or co-exist with, but do not cause, a subsequent event

Question 7

What is a generalization argument?

Answer 7

Draws conclusions based on recurring patterns or repeated relationships

Question 8

What is an analogy argument?

Answer 8

Involves comparison by looking at how alike two concepts are

Question 9

What is a statistical generalization?

Answer 9

An inference made about a population based on features of a sample

Question 10

How do you identify whether a statistical generalization is strong?

Answer 10

Look at the criteria of both sample size and representativeness of said sample

Question 11

What is the law of small numbers?

Answer 11

Extreme outcomes are more likely when considering a small number of cases

Question 12

Why is correlation not enough for causation?

Answer 12

Two conditions may appear together but not cause each other, as the presence of a third underlying variable is a possibility

Question 13

How do you set up a randomized experimental study?

Answer 13

Create a study in which you assign the subjects to treatment groups using random assignment

Question 14

How do you set up a prospective study?

Answer 14

Create an observational study in which subjects are followed over time to observe future outcomes

Question 15

How do you set up a retrospective study?

Answer 15

Create an observation study in which subjects are selected and then observe their previous conditions or behaviors

Question 16

What are the strengths of a randomized experimental study?

Answer 16

Creates the most confidence in the casual claim because participants are randomly selected and sample is representative

Question 17

What are the weaknesses of a randomized experimental study?

Answer 17

It can be immoral

Question 18

What are the strengths of a prospective study?

Answer 18

Does not present the same moral problems as a randomized study

Question 19

What are the weakness of a prospective study?

Answer 19

Can have cofounding factors, be lengthy and expensive, and samples are not random/representative

Question 20

What are the strengths of a retrospective study?

Answer 20

Easier than prospective when the condition is rare or we don’t know what causes some effect, also chepaer

Question 21

What are the weaknesses of a retrospective study?

Answer 21

Subject to problem of cofounding factors, plus sample is not random/representative

Question 22

What is concomitant variation?

Answer 22

The degree to which a presumed cause and a presumed effect occur or vary together

Question 23

What is regression to the mean?

Answer 23

The tendency of extreme results on a variable to be followed by, or associated with, less extreme scores

Question 24

What is inference to the best explanation?

Answer 24

The inductively strong argument form
- Ex. We have observed some phenomenon known as A. B provides the best explanation for A. Therefore, B must also be true.

Question 25

What are the standards of inference to the best explanation?

Answer 25

• Does it explain all relevant observations?
• Is it deep enough?
• Is it powerful?
• Is it falsifiable?
• Is it modest and simple?
• Is it conservative?

Question 26

What is an argument from analogy?

Answer 26

Depends on the existence of an analogy, or similar, between two things or states of affairs