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EPPP > Industrial/Organizational Psychology > Flashcards

Industrial/Organizational Psychology Flashcards

1
Q

Job analysis

A

Systematic method for collecting the information needed to describe job requirements

Serves as the basis for developing criterion measures, provides info for job redesign, helps to identify causes of accidents

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2
Q

Broad methods of job analysis

A

Observing employees performing the job

Interviewing employees and/or supervisors

Reviewing company records

Having employees keep a job diary

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3
Q

Two specific types of methods used for job analysis

A

Job-oriented methods (tasks required for the job)

Worker-oriented methods (attributes of the employee that would lead to success in that job)

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4
Q

Job-oriented methods of job analysis

A

Provide information about the characteristics of the tasks that are performed on the job

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5
Q

Worker-oriented methods of job analysis

A

Provide information about the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (“KSAOs”) that a worker needs to perform the job successfully

Ex. Position Analysis Questionnaire

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6
Q

Strength to worker-oriented methods of job analysis

A

Produce data that is more helpful for designing training programs and deriving criterion measures that provide useful employee feedback

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7
Q

Job analysis v job evaluation

A

Job analysis - conducted to clarify the requirements of the job

Job evaluation - conducted to determine the worth of the jobs to set salaries and wages

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8
Q

Job analysis

A

Conducted to clarify the requirements of the job

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9
Q

Job evaluation

A

Conducted to determine the worth of the job for setting wages and salaries

Identify commendable factors: years of education, years of experience, degree of autonomy or responsibility, consequences of errors

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10
Q

Comparable worth

A

Determined through job evaluations

Ensures that people performing comparable work are receiving comparable pay

Usually done through some kind of performance evaluation (points system), so that salary is determined by the inherent value of the job

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11
Q

Criterion measures

A

Used to assess job performance

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12
Q

Two types of criterion measures

A

Objective - quantitative (don’t usually provide enough info)

Subjective - judgement-based rating scales (susceptible to bias)

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13
Q

Objective criterion measures

A

Qualitative measures of production

- ex. Number of units produced, number of units sold, absenteeism, tardiness, etc.

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14
Q

Disadvantages to objective criterion measurement

A

May be biased towards situational factors (differences in equipment, territory, supplies, etc.)

Many important aspects of job effectiveness can not be measured quantitatively (eg. working with peers, job motivation, etc.)

Cannot use these measures with complex professional, material or administrative jobs

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15
Q

Subjective criterion measures

Broadly

A

Evaluate employees based on ratings that reflect the judgement of the rater (usually a supervisor)

Peer, subordinate, and self-ratings can also be used when appropriate

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16
Q

Four characteristics of criterion measures

A

Ultimate v actual criterion - ultimate criterion is the conceptual and theoretical criterion, actual is the way performance is actually measured

Relevance - actual criterion’s construct validity (the degree to which it measures the ultimate criterion)

Deficiency - the degree to which the actual criterion does not reflect all aspects of the ultimate criterion

Contamination - when an actual criterion assess factors other than what it was designed to measure

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17
Q

Ultimate v Actual criterion

A

Ultimate - the theoretical or conceptual criterion (the accurate and complete measure of performance)
Ex. Psychotherapist ultimate criterion = provides effective treatment

Actual - the way performance is actually measured
Ex. Psychotherapist actual criterion = patient satisfaction with treatment

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18
Q

Relevance as it pertains to criterion measurement

A

Criterion relevance refers to the actual criterion s construct validity (the degree to which it measures the ultimate criterion)

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19
Q

Deficiency as it relates to criterion measures

A

Criterion deficiency is the degree to which an actual criterion does NOT measure all aspects of the ultimate criterion

(Limits criterion relevance)

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20
Q

Contamination as it relates to criterion measurement

A

Criterion contamination occurs when an actual criterion measures factors other than those it was designed to assess

Ex. Knowledge of an employees predictor performance

(Limits relevance of criterion measurement)

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21
Q

Two types of subjective criterion measurement

A

Relative (comparative) - compare 2+ employees to each other

Absolute - provide info on performance without comparisons

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22
Q

Advantages and disadvantages to absolute and relative techniques of subjective criterion measurement

A

Relative techniques can help alleviate rater biases
- BUT force the rater to rank employees (even if they’re all doing equally well)

Absolute techniques run the risk of rater bias
- BUT do not force you to unnaturally rank employees

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23
Q

Absolute techniques of subjective criterion measurement

A

Provide information on an employees performance without reference or comparison to other employees

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24
Q

Relative techniques for subjective criterion measurement

A

Require a rater to compare the performance of two or more employees

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25
Q

Two relative techniques for subjective criterion measurement

A

Paired comparison - rater compares each employee with every other employee on dimensions of job performance

Forced distribution - grade employees on a normally distributed curve

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26
Q

Paired comparison technique

A

(Relative technique for subjective criterion measurement)

Rater compares an employee to every other employee on one or more dimensions of job performance

Disadvantage: becomes increasingly difficult as the number of employee increases

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27
Q

Forced distribution technique

A

(Relative technique for subjective criterion measures)

Involves assigning grades and placing employees grades on a normal curve

Disadvantage: may yield erroneous data if the data are not normally distributed

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28
Q

Critical incident technique

A

(An absolute technique for subjective criterion measurement)

Derive a checklist of critical incidents needed for good and bad performance
Rater completes the checklist for each employee

Advantage: provides data to give feedback to the employee
Disadvantage: development is difficult, assesses only extreme (critical) job behaviors rather than typical ones

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29
Q

Four types of absolute techniques for subjective criterion measurement

A

Critical incident technique

Forced choice rating scale

Graphic rating scale

Behaviorally anchored rating scale (BARS)

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30
Q

Forced choice rating scale technique

A

(Absolute technique for subjective criterion measurement)

Consists of 2-4 selection alternatives, and the rater has to choose the one that best or least describes the employee

Advantage: can help reduce rater bias
Disadvantage: time-consuming to develop, disliked by raters

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31
Q

Graphic rating scale technique

A

(Absolute technique for subjective criterion measurement)

Requires the rater to indicate employee level of performance on several dimensions using a Likert scale

Disadvantage: highly susceptible to bias (accuracy improved with Likert items are anchored with examples)

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32
Q

Behaviorally anchored rating scale (BARS) technique

A

(Absolute technique for subjective criterion measurement)

Supervisors (1) identify dimensions of job performance, (2) identify behavioral anchors (critical incidents) for each dimension, (3) order the anchors from most to least desirable or vice versa, (4) choose the anchors that best describe the employee

Advantage: provides data for employee feedback
Disadvantage: time-consuming to develop, anchors are often made up of expectations (and not what the employee is actually doing)

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33
Q

Three kinds of rater bias

A

Leniency/Strictness - raters avoid the middle range of a rating scale

Central Tendency - raters only use the middle range of a rating scale

Halo Bias - evaluation of the employee on one dimension impacts ratings on others

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34
Q

Leniency/Strictness Bias

A

Occurs when a rater tends to avoid the middle range of a rating scale, rating all employees as high (leniency) or low (strictness) on all dimensions of performance

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35
Q

Central Tendency Bias

A

When a rater consistently uses only the middle range of a rating scale

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36
Q

Halo Bias

A

When a raters evaluation of an employee on one dimension, impacts ratings in others
OR
When a raters general impression of an employee influences their ratings

Can be positive or negative

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37
Q

How to eliminate rater biases in employee criterion measurement

A

Frame-of-reference training

Provides raters with common descriptions of what constitutes effective and ineffective performance on each dimension

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38
Q

Reliability

As it relates to predicting employee performance

A

The extent to which performance on a measure is unaffected by measurement error

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39
Q

Validity

As it relates to predicting employee performance

A

The degree to which the measure assesses what it is designed or supposed to

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40
Q

Three types of validity and which one is most important for employee performance prediction

A

Content

Construct

Criterion

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41
Q

Adverse impact

A

When a selection test (or other employment procedure) is discriminating against members of a legally protected group

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42
Q

80% rule

A

Used to determine if a procedure is having an adverse impact

Multiply employment rate of majority group by 80%, and that will give you the employment rate of the minority group (adverse impact will be below that figure)

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43
Q

Two main causes of adverse impact

A

Differential validity - measure of predicted performance is valid for one group but not another

Unfairness - when members of one group consistently underperforms on a measure (and the differences are not due to score differences on the criterion)

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44
Q

Differential validity

As a source of adverse impact

A

Occurs when a measure is valid for one group but is not valid for another group.

The characteristic that distinguishes between the two groups (eg. gender) is the moderator variable

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45
Q

Unfairness

As it relates to sources of adverse impact

A

Occurs when embers of o;e group consistently obtained lower scores on a predictor than members of another group

BUT, the difference between the groups is not related to the difference between groups on the criterion variable

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46
Q

Two ways to handle a discrimination lawsuit (Title 6)

A

The burden of proof is on the company to demonstrate there is no discrimination

  1. Argue the measure is a business necessity with no reasonable alternative
  2. Argue the discrimination is a bona fide occupational qualification (ex. Needing a woman as a attendant for a women’s restroom)
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47
Q

Incremental validity

A

Refers to the increase in decision-making accuracy an employer will achieve by using the predictor to make selection decisions

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48
Q

Incremental validity depends on what two factors

A

Base rate - number of employees performing satisfactorily without use of the proposed predictor

Selection ratio - ratio of job openings to number of applicants

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49
Q

Selection ratio

A

The ratio of job openings to job applicants

Low ratios are best (small number of openings and many applicants) because it means the organization can be more selective

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50
Q

Base rate

As it relates to incremental validity

A

The percent of employees who are performing satisfactorily without use of the proposed predictor

Moderate base rates ~.50 are associated with best incremental validity

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51
Q

Taylor-Russell Tables

A

Used to estimate the percent of new hires that will be successful given a combination of:

  • validity coefficients
  • selection rates
  • base rates
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52
Q 
Multiple regression
(As it relates to employee selection)
A

When using a multiple regression for predicted job performance, you have predictor scores that are weighted and summed to yield an estimated criterion score

Multiple regressions are compensatory…so one high predictor score can offset a low predictor score

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53
Q 
Multiple cutoff
(As it relates to employee selection)
A

Noncompensatory

Applicants must reach minimum scores across the multiple predictors before they can be considered for selection

(May start with this, and then use multiple regression on the applicants that pass)

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54
Q

Three ways that predictors can be combined

As it pertains to employee selection

A

Multiple regression - combined and summarized scores on predictors

Multiple cutoff - applicants must pass cutoff scores on the predictors before being considered

Multiples hurdles - predictors are administered in a predetermined order, one at a time, and applicants must pass a hurdle before progressing to the next one

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55
Q 
General Mental (Cognitive) Ability Tests
(Predictors used in organizations)
A

Consistently produce the highest validity coefficients across jobs and job settings

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56
Q

Job Knowledge Tests

As they relate to predictors used in organizations

A

Measures of job knowledge are good (if not better) predictors of job performance (compared to GMAs)

These are only useful if the applicant has prior job training or experience

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57
Q

Personality Tests

As they pertain to predictors used in organizations

A

The Big Five trait of conscientiousness is most predictive of good outcomes

Research on personality scores and job performance is shaky

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58
Q

Biodata

As it relates to predictors used in organizations

A

Collection of employment history and other social history variables (health history, economic history, etc.)

One of the best predictors

Disadvantage: BIBs contain questions that are not face-valid, and some applicants may leave items blank feeling that the question is an invasion of privacy

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59
Q

Ways to improve validity of interviews (most common way predictors are measured)

A

Use a standardized interview

Train interviewers in observation and interpersonal skills

Combine the interview with other assessment matures (GMA, etc)

Use a single interviewer (better than a panel interview)

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60
Q

Realistic job previews

A

When a work sample is generated that includes a written description of the job

Helps to avoid turnover when the job does not reach expectations of the prospective employees

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61
Q

Two types of tests used at assessment centers

A

(When groups of applicants are evaluated by a panel)

In-basket test: take action on sample memos and reports

Leaderless group discussion: have 5-6 people work on a problem to solve or discuss a job-related issue

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62
Q

A needs assessment contains four elements:

A

Organizational analysis - what are the goals and is training needed to achieve them

Task analysis - what skills are needed by employees to succeed

Person analysis - to determine who needs the training (which workers)

Demographic analysis - which groups may need the training (eg. Age)

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63
Q

Two main principles of effective training

A

Overlearning - practice a task beyond mastery, leads to automaticity

Provision of identical elements - making training as identical to real world scenarios as possible

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64
Q

Two major methods of training employees

A

On-the-job (most widely used)

Off-the-job

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65
Q

Advantages to on-the-job training

A

Permit active participation

Allow for ongoing feedback

Are job-relevant

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66
Q

Examples of on-the-job training

A

Internships, apprenticeships, mentoring

Job rotation - working many roles within a job (for management)

Cross-training - teaching workers tasks that are performed in several similar jobs

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67
Q

Job rotation

A

Form of on-the-job training

Involves having trainees perform several jobs over time

Ordinarily used to train managers

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68
Q

Cross-training

A

Form of on-the-job training

Teaches workers tasks and activities that are performed in several, similar jobs

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69
Q

Advantages to off-the-job training techniques

A

Pro ide more opportunities for focusing on specific tasks

Flexibility to tolerate learning errors

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70
Q

Disadvantages to off-the-job training techniques

A

Low trainee motivation

Higher costs (due to time off for the training)

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71
Q

Types of off-the-job training

A

Lectures, conferences, computer assisted trainings

Vestibule modeling - simulation of a work scenario that is too dangerous or costly to do in real life

Behavioral modeling - watching a teacher perform the task to be learned

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72
Q

Vestibule modeling

A

Type of off-the-job training

Makes use of a physical replication or simulation of the work environment

Is useful when on-the-job training would be too costly or dangerous

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73
Q

Behavioral modeling

A

Bandura

Type of off-the-job training

Employees observe a skilled worker performing the target behavior, then they are asked to emulate

74
Q

Four levels of evaluation criteria for job training programs

A

Reaction criteria - evaluates participants reactions to the training

Learning criterion - evaluates how much participants actually learned

Behavioral criteria - assesses participants change in performance when they return to the job

Results criteria - the impact of the training on the organizations goals

75
Q

Utility analysis

A

Used to evaluate the effectiveness of training as it relates to a return on the organizations financial returns

Uses a mathematical formula

76
Q

Formative v summation feedback

A

Formative - conducted while training programs are being developed and feedback is used to modify the program before its implemented

Summative - conducted after the training is implemented to assess the trainings outcomes (may include how much employees have learned and/or cost effectiveness)

77
Q

Super’s Life Space Life Span theory

Career development

A

Job satisfaction, stability, and success depend on the extent to which a job matches an individual’s self-concept (inherited attitudes, physical makeup, social learning)

78
Q

Super’s five stages of career development

Life SPAN

A 
Growth (0-14)
Exploration (14-25)
Establishment (25-45)
Maintenance (45-65)
Disengagement (65+)
79
Q

Career maturity

A

(Super’s Life Space Life Span theory)

A persons ability to cope with the developmental tasks of their career stage (decision making, planning ahead, knowledge, use of information and resources)

80
Q

Life-Career Rainbow

A

(Supers Life SPACE Life Span theory)

Image that relates the persons career development as it impacts their social roles (student, apprentice, employee, supervisor, teacher…etc.)

81
Q

Holland’s model of career development

A

Emphasizes the importance of matching someone’s personality to the characteristics of the job

82
Q

RIASEC

Holland’s model of career development

A

The six types of personality/work environments

Realistic
Investigative
Artistic
Social
Enterprising
Conventional
83
Q

Differentiation

Holland’s model of career development

A

Proposes his model works best on predicting job stability and satisfaction when there is a high level of differentiation (difference) between one of his six types (RIASEC) and the other five

84
Q

Roe’s theory on career development

Generally

A

Concerned with Maslow’s hierarchy and how well a job fits into your personality and basic needs

85
Q

Tiedeman and Ohara’s Career Decision-Making Model

Career development

A

Vocational identity is tied to ego identity and development

Two stages of career decision making:
Anticipation - search for, try out, and get jobs
Implementation - enters the work situation, becomes a member of the workforce, achieves balance between work and social needs

86
Q

Krumboltz’s Social Learning Theory

Career development

A

Career decision making is based on reinforcement and learning (Bandura)

Influenced by four factors: genes (natural strengths), environmental conditions (job opportunities, location, community influence, learning experiences, and task approach skills (habits, performance expectations)

87
Q

How does Krumboltz’s approach to career development differ from other, more classic models (such as Super, Tiedeman and O’Hara, Holland, and Roe)?

A

Does not focus on matching someone to a job that fits them, but rather promotes continual learning and self-development (which allows you to change and respond to your work environment)

88
Q

Brousseau and Driver’s four career concepts

A

Fall along three dimensions: frequency of job change, direction of change, and type of change in job content

1 - linear - progressive upward trend in authority and responsibility
2 - expert - lifelong commitment and development to a career specialty
3 - spiral - periodic moves across specialties or disciplines
4 - transitory - frequenters job changes, often in unrelated fields

89
Q

Theory of work adjustment

A

Dawis and Lofquist

Job tenure, satisfaction, and outcomes are related to:
1 - satisfaction - degree to which job represents your needs and values
2 - satisfactoriness - degree to which your skills fit the job

90
Q

Effects of unemployment

A

Decreases in physical and emotional health

91
Q

Lazarus and Folkman’s two approaches to coping with unemployment

A

Problem-focused coping - focus on the problem that is causing the stress (ex. Job searching, skill building, moving to a better location)

Symptom-focused coping - dealing with the emotional reactions to the stressor (looking for community or family support, financial assistance, venting)

92
Q

Downsizing

A

When a company attempts to cut costs by reducing its workforce

93
Q

Consequences of downsizing (for survivors)

A

Survivor syndrome

Feelings of depression, anxiety, guilt, loss of respect for company, decreased job satisfaction

94
Q

Scientific management

A

Scientific method + job productivity
(Emphasizes that employees are monetarily motivated)

Involves: standardization of job tasks, scientifically selecting and training workers for their tasks, fostering cooperation between employees and supervisors, and ensuring everyone takes responsibility for their share of the work

95
Q

Human relations movement

A

Discounted the notion that employees and monetarily motivated, or produced better under optimal physical conditions

Focused on the importance of social and psychological factors

96
Q

Hawthorne effect

A

(Human relations movement)

The improvement of job performance resulting from psychological and social factors

97
Q

Theory X vs Theory Y managers

A

Theory X - assumes employees dislike work, try to get out of it whenever possible, and must be controlled and directed

Theory Y - believe work should be as natural as play, and assume employees can self-direct and self-control
(Leads to better outcomes)

98
Q

Needs-Hierarchy Theory

Employee motivation

A

Based on Maslow

Motivation is the result of the five basic instinctual needs: physiological, safety, relationships, esteem, and self-actualization

Managers tend to rate esteem and self-actualization most important
Non-managers tend to rate the lower needs as most important

99
Q

McClelland’s Need Theory

Of employee motivation

A

Three needs act as motivators in work settings:

nACH - need to surpass standards of excellence and grow
nPOW - need to control and influence others
nAFF - need to establish warm and close relationships

100
Q

Qualities of people with high nAFF

A

Work well in teams and with jobs that allow them to relate with others

101
Q

Qualities of people with high nACH

A

Goal and task oriented

Choose tasks at moderate difficulty (since success often relies more on effort than uncontrollable factors)

Prefer frequent, constant feedback, view money as a source of recognition (but don’t overemphasize money)

Assume personal responsibility for their work, so don’t make good managers

102
Q

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Of employee motivation

A

Incorporates both satisfaction and motivation (and dissatisfaction is independent, and not just a lack of satisfaction)

Lower level needs (hygiene factors) and higher level needs (motivator factors)

103
Q

Two basic needs of Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

A

Lower level needs - do not impact satisfaction and motivation, but increase dissatisfaction if they’re not met (hygiene factors - pay, benefits, coworker relationships, work conditions)

Higher level needs - do not create dissatisfaction if not bet, but can improve satisfaction and motivation (motivator factors - responsibility, advancement, recognition, achievement)

104
Q

Job enrichment v job enlargement

A

Job enrichment - providing employees with more higher-level jobs that allow for more autonomy, responsibility, freedom, and control

Job enlargement - providing employees with a wider array of tasks to do
(Reduces boredom, but doesn’t impact satisfaction and motivation like job enrichment does)

105
Q

Goal-Setting Theory

of employee motivation

A

Employees are motivated to achieve goals that they consciously accept and commit to

Participation in goal setting is critical when the employee is not likely to accept the assigned goal

When people set their own goals, they tend to be more difficult than the goals given by their supervisor

106
Q

Individual v group goals

Goal settings theory of employee motivation

A

Individual goals are preferred when the tasks require the employees to work independently

Group goals are preferred when the task depends on cooperation and interdependence
Group goals are more effective than individual goals

107
Q

When is participation in goal setting important

Goal setting theory of employee motivation

A

Whenever employees are not likely to accept assigned goals

Otherwise, it’s not crucial

108
Q

Equity theory of employee motivation

A

Theory is based on motivation and social comparison

Employees compare their output to that of their coworkers…if there is inequity they will chance their output or rationalize the inequity to maintain balance

109
Q

Expectancy (VIE) theory of employee motivation

A

An employee will work hard if:

(High expectancy) They perceive high effort will lead to success
(High instrumentality) Success leads to rewards
(Positive valance) Rewards are desirable

110
Q

Social cognitive theory of employee motivation

A

(Bandura) Emphasizes the self-regulation of behavior and proposes four processes:

Goal setting - establish personal goals
Self-observation - monitor your goal-related behavior
Self-evaluation - compare behavior to the goals
Self-reaction - can be positive or negative, keep going with behaviors towards goals or reevaluate goals

111
Q

Job satisfaction

A

An employees cognitive, affective, and evaluative reactions to his or her job

112
Q

Worker characteristics associated with job satisfaction

A

Disposition - genetic component to job satisfaction (twin studies)

Age - positive linear or u-shaped (high, low, high sat) relationship

Race - minority employees may have lower levels of job satisfaction

Occupational level - more satisfaction with white-collar

113
Q

Impact of pay on job satisfaction

A

Research has been inconclusive

But - an employees perception of equity and fairness (how they’re treated) may correlate stronger than pay to job satisfaction

114
Q

Correlation coefficient between job dissatisfaction and turnover

A

-0.40

115
Q

Organizational commitment

A

Strength of an employees psychological attachment to an organization

Three types:
Affective (emotional connection), continuance (costs of leaving), normative (remaining because it’s right thing to do)

116
Q

Affective organizational commitment

A

Refers to a workers identification with, emotional attachment to, and involvement in the organization

Most strongly correlated to absenteeism, turnover, job performance, etc.

117
Q

Continuance organizational commitment

A

Refers to a workers perceptions regarding the social and monetary costs of leaving an organization

118
Q

Normative organizational commitment

A

Refers to the workers sense of obligation to remain with the organization because they believe it’s the right thing to do

119
Q

Ohio State University leadership dimensions

A

OSU study identified two basic and independent dimensions of leadership behavior

Consideration - amount of warmth, concern, rapport, and support displayed by the leader (person-oriented)

Initiating Structure - extent to which a leader directs and structures roles to achieve goals (task-oriented)

120
Q

Gender differences in leadership

A

No differences between gender and expression of consideration or initiating structure

Women may take a more democratic (participative) decision-making approach

121
Q

Personality traits of effective leaders

A 
Honesty
Drive
Integrity
Knowledge
Flexibility
Creativity

Big-Five trait of extroversion

122
Q

Relationship between leadership and intelligence

A

Leaders are most successful when their intelligence is only somewhat greater than the intelligence of their subordinates

Large discrepancy can create problems with communication and trust

123
Q

Contingency theory of leadership

A

Leadership effectiveness is an interaction between leadership style and situational favorableness

Leadership style - relation (high LPC) v task orientation (low LPC)
Situational favorableness - amount of influence and power a leader has

124
Q

Cognitive resource theory of leadership

A

Leaders intelligence and experience on leadership performance is moderated by the stressful ness of the situation

Low-stress situations: intelligence is strongest predictor of performance
High-stress situations: experience is strongest predictor of performance

125
Q

Path-goal theory of leadership

A

Effective leaders carve a path for subordinates that allows them to fulfill personal goals through achievement of group and organizational goals

Can be either directive, supportive, participative, or achievement-oriented

126
Q

Situational leadership

A

Four styles of leadership exist and are appropriate at varying times

Telling - high task, low relshp / employees low willingness and ability
Selling - high task and relshp / employees low ability and high willingness
Participating - low task, high relshp / employees high ability, low willing
Delegating - low task and relshp / employees high ability and willingness

127
Q

Normative (decision-making) model

A

Five basic decision strategies

Autocratic (AI) - leader makes decisions alone
Autocratic (AII) - leader seeks input but makes final decision by themself
Consultative (CI) - talk to each individual employee, makes a decision
Consultative (CII) - take to employees as a group, makes a decision
Group (G) - brings issue to group, group makes the decision

128
Q

Transformational leaders

A

Have the ability to recognize need for change, create a vision that guides that change, and accomplish change effectively (framing)

Empower employees through through appeals to morality and justice

129
Q

Transactional leaders

A

Focus more on stability than change, emphasize behaviors related to normal work activities (status quo)

Rely on rewards and punishments to motivate employees

130
Q

Conditions that contribute to group norms

A

Task demands: ambiguous, highly complex, or situations that involve solutionless problems increase group conformity

Group characteristics: one dissenter breaks conformity

131
Q

Idiosyncrasy Credits

A

The ability for a group member to occasionally violate group norms without rejection, because he or she has gained status, power, or prestige within a group

132
Q

Factors that influence group cohesiveness

A

Size: most cohesion in groups of 5-10 people

Homogeneity: more cohesion when the members are similar

Goals: more cohesion when members have to depend on one another to achieve common goals

133
Q

Types of group tasks

A

Additive task - individual contributions are all added together

Compensatory task - individual contributions are averaged together

Disjunctive task - group members select the decision offered by one group member (ideally, that of the best member)

Conjunctive task - group performance is limited by the worst member

134
Q

Additive group tasks

A

Individual contributions of group members are added together for form a group product

Group performance of additive tasks is superior to individual performance

135
Q

Compensatory group tasks

A

A tack wherein the inputs of group members are averaged together to create a single product

136
Q

Disjunctive group tasks

A

Group members must select the solution or decision offered by one of the group members

Ideally, that of the best member

137
Q

Conjunctive group tasks

A

The groups overall performance is limited by that of the worst-performing member

138
Q

Social loafing

A

Potential negative outcome to group work

When an individual exerts less effort as a group member than they would have exerted if working alone

139
Q

Factors that increase the chances of social loafing

A

When members know their contributions will not be recognized

Large group size

140
Q

Social facilitation v social inhibition

A

Social facilitation - when the mere presence of others increases task performance (most likely when task is simple and well-learned)

Social inhibition - when the presence of others decreases task performance (most likely when task is complex or new(unlearned))

141
Q

Five states of group development

Tuckman and Jensen

A

Forming - members become acquainted and attempt to est rules
Storming - group members fight for, and resist, control and power
Norming - group members begin to work together, form rules, care for one another
Performing - form clear roles, accept strengths and weaknesses, work together to get the job done
Adjourning - task is complete, group disbands

142
Q

Two types of communion networks

A

Centralized (Y, wagon wheel, chain)

  • all communications pass through a central person or position
  • more efficient for simple tasks, only central person reports satisfaction

Decentralized (circle, all-channel)

  • information flows freely without going through a central person
  • better for complex tasks, all members are satisfied
143
Q

Two types of Individual Decision-Making models

A

Rational-economic - decision makers consider all possible alternatives before selecting one (assumes they have all the information they need and that the information is correct)

Bounded rationality - decision makers consider options as they arise, and select the first solution that meets a minimum standard of criteria (acknowledges limits on time, capabilities, resources, etc.)

144
Q

Two potential liabilities to group decision making

A

Groupthink - when the group is so homogeneous that it no longer uses critical thinking

Group polarization - when the group makes riskier decisions than the individual members would on their own

145
Q

How to reduce groupthink

A

Encouraging skepticism and dissent

Appointing someone to play devil’s advocate

Bringing in outside opinions

146
Q

Brainstorming

A

Involves two components:

  • Encouraging group members to verbalize all ideas that come to mind regardless of quality or feasibility of the idea
  • Requiring all members to reserve judgement and criticism until the end
147
Q

Three formal methods for conflict resolution

A

Bargaining (compromising)

Mediation (powerless person comes in to open channels of communication and reach an agreement between disputants)

Arbitration (an arbiter controls the process and outcome of the conflict resolution)

148
Q

Three phases to mediation

A

Setting the stage (clarifying ground rules and collecting information)

Problem solving (posting issues and generating alternatives)

Achieving a workable agreement (pressuring parties to reach an agreement)

149
Q

Four types of arbitration

A

Binding (both sides accept an agreement posited by arbiter)

Voluntary (parties only agree to arbitration process)

Conventional (arbiter is free to choose any settlement solution)

Final offer (arbiter selects one of the final offers out forth by disputants)

150
Q

Force Field Analysis

For planned change

A

Organizations are constantly responding to forces that either promote (driving forces) or resist (restraining forces) change

Involves three stages: unfreezing (need for change is recognized and steps take to make people receptive to change), changing, refreezing (supporting the changes and reestablishing an equilibrium)

151
Q

Four primary organizational development interventions

A

Quality circles (small group works together and reports back)

Self-mgmt work teams (group makes management-level decisions)

Process consultation (person comes in, observes, and teaches employees how to improve)

Total quality management (emphasizes teamwork, compresses vertical organizational structures)

152
Q

Change agent

A

An individual who is responsible for guiding change efforts within an organization

153
Q

Internal v external change agents

A

Internal - member of the organization that is familiar with the organizations structures and has a personal interest in the change effort (issue: may lack objectivity)

External- a consultant called in to subjectively assess a situation and bring in new perspective (issue: lack familiarity with the organization)

154
Q

Three types of organizational justice

A

Procedural - fairness of the way in which a policy or procedure is implemented

Distributive - fairness of the outcomes of an organizational procedure or policy

Interactional - how people feel about quality and context of interpersonal interactions

155
Q

Hofstede’s Five Dimensions of National (Organizational) Culture

A

Power distance

Uncertainty avoidance

Individualism

Masculinity

Long-term orientation

156
Q

Power distance

Hofstede’s five dimensions of national culture

A

The extent to which people accept an unequal distribution of power

157
Q 
Uncertainty avoidance 
(Hofstede’s Five Dimensions of National Culture)
A

The willingness or ability of people to tolerate ambiguity and uncertainty

158
Q

Individualism

Hofstede’s Five Dimensions of National Culture

A

The extent to which individuals or closely-knit relationships (eg. Family) are the basis of the social system

159
Q

Masculinity

Hofstede’s Five Dimensions of National Culture

A

Extent to which value is placed in assertiveness, independence, and competitiveness

160
Q

Long-Term Orientation

Hofstede’s Five Dimensions of National Culture

A

The extent to which people focus on the future, versus the past or present

161
Q

Schein’s three levels of organizational culture

A
  1. Made up of observable artifacts (dress code, annual reports, rituals)
  2. Consists of espoused values and beliefs (norms, goals, ideologies)
  3. Composed of basic underlying assumptions (unconscious, taken-for-granted perceptions, beliefs, thoughts, and emotions)
162
Q

Person-organization fit

P-O

A

Extent to which a persons values match those of the organizations culture

163
Q

Impact of good P-O fit

A

Small impact on productivity

Larger impact on motivation, satisfaction, and organizational commitment

164
Q

Yerkes-Dodson Law

A

The relationship between level of arousal and performance is described with an inverted U-shape, with moderate arousal leading to best performances

Easy tasks - more arousal is optimal
Hard tasks - less arousal is optimal

165
Q

One of the largest causes of reduced arousal in job performance

A

Fatigue

166
Q

Methods for reducing fatigue

A

Selecting workers who are least likely to be fatigued by job requirements

Training workers in efficient job procedures

Providing rest breaks

167
Q

How to make rest breaks effective for employees

A

Smaller, more frequent > longer, less frequent

Make sure their schedules have been empirically determined

Be provided in fourth and eighth hours of work (when fatigue is highest)

168
Q

Demand-Control (Job Strain) Model

A

Identifies job demand and job control as the primary contributors to job stress

Job demand: requirements of the job (work hours, etc.)
Job control: amount of autonomy and discretion workers have

Most stressful jobs are high in job demand and low in job control

169
Q

Job burnout

A

Caused by accumulated stress with overwork

170
Q

Primary symptoms of job burnout

A

Feelings of low personal accomplishment

Depersonalization (tendency to treat employees as objects)

Emotional exhaustion

171
Q

An early sign of job burnout

A

Increase in work effort, with no related increase in job productivity

172
Q

Worker characteristics that increase risk of job burnout

A

Inflexible

Feel their efforts are useless, ineffective, or under appreciated

Feel their opportunities for advancement are limited

173
Q

Characteristics of jobs that increase risk of burnout

A

If the job involves frequent contact with people in need of help

When the supervisor is perceived as being low in consideration

When the job presents with overwhelming demands and time pressures

174
Q

Work-family conflict

A

When the role demands of career and family are incompatible because work interferes with family

175
Q

Person-machine fit

A

Human factors perspective

Performance is a result of an interaction between people and machines (or other non-human element in the workplace), and a failure in performance is due to a person-machine mismatch

176
Q

Americans with Disabilities Act

1991

A

Employers with more than fifteen employees cannot discriminate based on physical or mental disability

Employers must make “reasonable accommodations” so long as the accommodations do not cause “undue hardship” to the employer

Prohibits medical examinations prior to the employment offer, and only allowed them post-offer if there is a real need for one for the job

177
Q

Examples of “reasonable accommodations” in accordance with ADA

A

Making existing facilities accessible

Acquiring or modifying equipment

Modifying training materials

Altering the work schedule

178
Q

Compressed workweek

A

When you work for fewer days, but more hours each day
Ex. 4-10s

Have positive effects on supervisor ratings and performance, but no impact on productivity

179
Q

Flextime

A

When an employee chooses their start and end times around a core time when all employees will be present

Positive connections with productivity, satisfaction, absenteeism
Less stress, less work-family conflict

180
Q

Three primary work shifts

A

Regular: 7am-3pm
Swing: 3pm-11pm
Graveyard: 11pm-7am

181
Q

How to reduce negative impacts on shift work

A

Fixed shifts preferred over rotating shifts
(Forwards rotating shifts preferred over backwards rotating shifts)

Freedom of choice over shifts can be protective against negative outcomes

182
Q

Disadvantages to working swing and graveyard shifts

A

Swing shifts have biggest negative impact on family

Graveyard shifts are most connected with negative social, health, and work-related problems (accidents, low quality)
- due at least in part to sleep deprivation

EPPP (14 decks)

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