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1
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Salem et al. (2019)

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In the current literature there is a general lack of research examining the impact of causal explanations on beliefs about psychotherapy, willingness to accept treatment, and treatment expectancies. The present study was aimed at experimentally investigating effects of causal explanations for depression on treatment-seeking behavior and beliefs. Participants at a large Southern university (N = 139; 78% female; average age 19.77) received bogus screening results indicating high depression risk, then viewed an explanation of depression etiology (fixed biological vs. malleable biopsychosocial) before receiving a treatment referral (antidepressant vs. psychotherapy). Participants accepted the cover story at face value, but some expressed doubts about the screening task’s ability to properly assess their individual depression. Within the skeptics, those given a fixed biological explanation for depression were relatively unwilling to accept either treatment, but those given a malleable biopsychosocial explanation were much more willing to accept psychotherapy. Importantly, differences in skepticism were not due to levels of actual depressive symptoms. Information about the malleability of depression may have a protective effect for persons who otherwise would not accept treatment.

2
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Mumtaz and Quayyum (2019)

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Basic procedures: In this paper, two different deep learning architectures were proposed that utilized one dimensional convolutional neural network (1DCNN) and 1DCNN with long short-term memory (LSTM) architecture. The proposed deep learning architectures automatically learn patterns in the EEG data that were useful for classifying the depressed and healthy controls. In addition, the proposed models were validated with resting-state EEG data obtained from 33 depressed patients and 30 healthy controls.

Main findings: As results, significant differences were observed between the two groups. The classification results involving the CNN model were accuracy=98.32%, precision=99.78%, recall=98.34%, and f-score=97.65%. In addition, the study has reported LSTM with 1DCNN classification accuracy=95.97%, precision=99.23%, recall=93.67%, and f-score=95.14%.

Conclusions: Deep learning frameworks could revolutionize the clinical applications for EEG-based diagnosis for depression. Based on the results, it may be concluded that the deep learning framework could be used as an automatic method for diagnosing the depression.

3
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Han et al. (2019)

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Individuals with subthreshold depression have an increased risk of developing major depressive disorder (MDD). The aim of this study was to develop a prediction model to predict the probability of MDD onset in subthreshold individuals, based on their proteomic, sociodemographic and clinical data. To this end, we analysed 198 features (146 peptides representing 77 serum proteins (measured using MRM-MS), 22 sociodemographic factors and 30 clinical features) in 86 first-episode MDD patients (training set patient group), 37 subthreshold individuals who developed MDD within two or four years (extrapolation test set patient group), and 86 subthreshold individuals who did not develop MDD within four years (shared reference group). To ensure the development of a robust and reproducible model, we applied feature extraction and model averaging across a set of 100 models obtained from repeated application of group LASSO regression with ten-fold cross-validation on the training set. This resulted in a 12-feature prediction model consisting of six serum proteins (AACT, APOE, APOH, FETUA, HBA and PHLD), three sociodemographic factors (body mass index, childhood trauma and education level) and three depressive symptoms (sadness, fatigue and leaden paralysis). Importantly, the model demonstrated a fair performance in predicting future MDD diagnosis of subthreshold individuals in the extrapolation test set (AUC = 0.75), which involved going beyond the scope of the model. These findings suggest that it may be possible to detect disease indications in subthreshold individuals up to four years prior to diagnosis, which has important clinical implications regarding the identification and treatment of high-risk individuals.

4
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de Leon et al. (2019)

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Introduction: Suicide is a multifactorial phenomenon that is frequently found in comorbidity with mental disorders, such as depression and substance abuse, which can interact in summation to produce any element of the continuum of suicidal behavior: ideation, planning, attempt, and death by suicide. Objectives: To describe the relationship between depression and other mental disorders with substance abuse and suicidal behavior, and to discuss its implications for mental health services in Mexico. Methods: A narrative review of the literature of articles published national and internationally was carried out to describe the relationship between depression and other mental disorders with substance abuse and suicidal behavior. Results: The review of the literature demonstrates the relationship between depression and substance abuse (mainly alcohol) with suicidal behavior; however, the need for its early diagnosis and timely treatment is indicated, especially in high-risk groups, like adolescents. Conclusions: There is a synergistic relationship between depression and substance use for the presence of greater suicidal behavior, which implies important challenges in mental health care services as early identification and effective management are essential to reduce the impact of the continuum of suicidal behavior.

5
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Tshomo and Chaimongkol (2019)

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This study aimed to determine the prevalence of depression and factors associated with the depression among persons with chronic medical illness. A total of 120 adult patients visited at a medicine OPD hospital in Bhutan were recruited and asked to complete self-report questionnaires. Descriptive statistics and binary logistic regression were employed to analyze the data. Results revealed 41% of the prevalence rate of depression in persons with chronic medical illness in Bhutan. Patients’ age <= 40 years, being a female, and those with low level of physical activity and low social support were significantly associated with depression. Nurses and related health care providers could utilize these findings to develop an intervention to prevent depression in persons with medical chronic illness by promoting social support and physical activity focusing on females, and young adults.

6
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Berlow et al. (2019)

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As transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) emerges as an investigational noninvasive approach for the treatment of major depressive disorder, there is increasing interest in its safety profile [ 1 ]. Several studies and case reports suggest that tDCS may be associated with increased risk of treatment-emergent mania or hypomania (TEM) when used to treat depression [ 2 , 3 , 4 ]. In 2017, Brunoni et al. [ 3 ] conducted a meta-analysis of TEM in ten randomized controlled trials (RCTs) evaluating antidepressant effects of active tDCS (n = 226) and sham tDCS (n = 190) in unipolar and bipolar depression and failed to demonstrate group differences [ 3 ]. Since that time, three large antidepressant RCTs comparing active tDCS (n = 185) with sham (n = 216) in unipolar depression have been published [ 4 , 5 , 6 ]; results include four additional cases of TEM occurring in the active tDCS groups and none in the sham groups. The current study aims to provide an updated meta-analysis that evaluates the association between tDCS and TEM in unipolar depression, hypothesizing that active tDCS is associated with increased risk of TEM relative to sham, and represents a safety outcome that merits consideration when designing future treatment protocols and considering risks related to unsupervised tDCS.

7
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Stanton et al. (2019)

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Extensive research has been conducted to isolate features that distinguish bipolar spectrum disorders from unipolar depression. Therefore, we identified latent symptom dimensions that are unique versus shared across these disorders by examining the joint structure of hypomanic/manic and depressive symptoms in two large samples (i.e., 647 community adults; 1,370 outpatients with unipolar depression or bipolar disorder history). Results across studies suggested that (a) many hypomanic/manic and depressive symptoms (e.g., irritability) are transdiagnostic, but also that (b) symptoms such as increased energy and euphoric mood define a latent specific positive activation dimension that appears more specific to bipolar disorder. We discuss how these results indicate that some symptoms may be more optimal to target than others when trying to distinguish bipolar disorder from unipolar depression, as well as how the identification of relatively disorder-specific symptom types may optimally guide future research on key mechanisms linked to hypomania/mania and depression

8
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Yu et al. (2020)

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Two popular debilitating illness, unipolar depression (UD) and bipolar disorder (BD), have the similar symptoms and tight association on the psychopathological level, leading to a clinical challenge to distinguish them. In order to figure out the underlying common and different mechanism of both mood disorders, resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI) data derived from 36 UD patients, 42 BD patients (specially type I, BD-I) and 45 healthy controls (HC) were analyzed retrospectively in this study. Functional brain networks were firstly constructed on both group and individual levels with a density 0.2, which was determined by a network thresholding approach based on modular similarity. Then we investigated the alterations of modular structure and other topological properties of the functional brain network, including global network characteristics and nodal network measures. The results demonstrated that the functional brain networks of UD and BD-I groups preserved the modularity and small-worldness property. However, compared with HC, reduced number of modules was observed in both patients’ groups with shared alterations occurring in hippocampus, para hippocampal gyrus, amygdala and superior parietal gyrus and distinct changes of modular composition mainly in the caudate regions of basal ganglia. Additionally, for the network characteristics, compared to HC, significantly decreased global efficiency and small-worldness were observed in BD-I. For the nodal metrics, significant decrease of local efficiency was found in several regions in both UD and BD-I, while a UD-specified increase of participant coefficient was found in the right paracentral lobule and the right thalamus. These findings may contribute to throw light on the neuropathological mechanisms underlying the two disorders and further help to explore objective biomarkers for the correct diagnosis of UD and BD.

9
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Fond et al. (2020)

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Methods: Abnormal CRP was defined by a CRP blood level >= 3 mg/L. Depressive symptoms were assessed by the Calgary Depression Rating Scale score. The clinicians were blinded of the CRP status of the patient.

Results: 411 patients were included (272 SZ and 139 UD). 171 (41.6%) were diagnosed with current major depression (74 (27.2%) for SZ and 97 (69.8%) for UD). 86 SZ (31.6%) and 119 UD (85.6%) were treated by antidepressant. Only 28/74 (37.8%) of the SZ subjects with major depression were administered antidepressants vs. 87/97 (89.7%) for UD. The non-remission rate under antidepressant was 28/86(32.6%) for SZ and 87/119 (73.1%) for UD. Overall, 105 (40.1%) of SZ and 39 (28.1%) of UD patients were found to have abnormal CRP blood levels. Abnormal CRP levels were significantly associated with increased MDD and more strongly with increased rates of non-remission under antidepressants in SZ patients, independently of age, gender, psychotic symptomatology, functioning, tobacco smoking and metabolic syndrome. This result was not replicated in UD patients, which suggests that CRP may be a specific marker of major depression and remission under antidepressant in SZ patients.

Conclusion: The development of biomarkers in psychiatry may orientate specific etiologic therapies in patients with mental disorders. The present findings suggest that major depression is frequent in SZ patients and that increased CRP levels are associated with non-remission under antidepressants in this population. Anti-inflammatory strategies may be particularly useful in this specific population

10
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Li et al. (2019)

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This study investigated the relationship between guilt and well-being of bereaved persons, and explored potential differences in the associations between guilt-complicated grief (CG) and guilt-depression. In total, 1358 Chinese bereaved adults were recruited to fill out questionnaires. Participants (N = 194) who had been bereaved within 2years of the first survey, filled out the same questionnaires 1 year later. Higher guilt was associated with higher degrees of both CG and depression. The level of guilt predicted CG and depression symptoms 1 year later. Bereavement-related guilt has a closer association with CG than depression. Responsibility guilt, indebtedness guilt and degree of guilt feeling are more prominent aspects of guilt in CG than in depression. These findings demonstrate the significant role of guilt (perhaps a core symptom) in mental health of the bereaved, having implications for identifying persons with grief complications and depression.

11
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Zisook et al. (2007)

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Objective: This report assesses whether age at onset defines a specific subgroup of major depressive disorder in 4,041 participants who entered the Sequenced Treatment Alternatives to Relieve Depression (STAR*D) study. Method: The study enrolled outpatients 18–75 years of age with nonpsychotic major depressive disorder from both primary care and psychiatric care practices. At study entry, participants estimated the age at which they experienced the onset of their first major depressive episode. This report divides the population into five age-at-onset groups: childhood onset (ages <12), adolescent onset (ages 12–17), early adult onset (ages 18–44), middle adult onset (ages 45–59), and late adult onset (ages ≥60). Results: No group clearly stood out as distinct from the others. Rather, the authors observed an apparent gradient, with earlier ages at onset associated with never being married, more impaired social and occupational function, poorer quality of life, greater medical and psychiatric comorbidity, a more negative view of life and the self, more lifetime depressive episodes and suicide attempts, and greater symptom severity and suicidal ideation in the index episode compared to those with later ages at onset of major depressive disorder. Conclusions: Although age at onset does not define distinct depressive subgroups, earlier onset is associated with multiple indicators of greater illness burden across a wide range of indicators. Age of onset was not associated with a difference in treatment response to the initial trial of citalopram.

12
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Boylan et al. (2019)

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To update a comparative effectiveness review (1980–2011) of treatments for adolescents whose depressive episode or disorder (MDE/MDD) did not respond to one or more trials of SSRI antidepressants. MEDLINE, Cochrane Central, PsychINFO, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, EMBASE, CINAHL, and AMED were searched in addition to the grey literature. We spanned May 2011 to September 1, 2017 and included only articles in English. 11 new studies were reviewed based on the criteria of having tested a comparative treatment in adolescents with MDD or MDE who were confirmed to have failed one or more SSRI trials. Data were extracted using standardized forms and a reference guide in DistillerSR; a second reviewer verified the accuracy of the data fields and discrepancies were resolved by consensus. One trial (N = 29) found a small benefit of escalating doses of fluoxetine and the treatment of adolescent depression study (TORDIA, N = 334) found significant benefits of combined SSRI or venlafaxine treatment with CBT for most outcomes. No new studies were identified since the previous review (2012). One trial is currently registered that will be a cross over trial of rTMS; other registered trials are open label. Multiple secondary data analyses of TORDIA have identified important predictors of treatment response and relapse. No new comparative studies were identified since the original review. Trials are desperately needed to identify new treatments for youth with SSRI resistant MDD. These youth should not be deemed as treatment resistant until completing one or two failed trials of SSRI combined with evidence-based psychotherapy.

13
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Eraydin et al. (2018)

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Methods
This study examined baseline cross‐sectional data from the ongoing online PROTECT study. A total of 7344 participants, 50 years or older, with a history of depression and no diagnosis of dementia were divided into three groups according to age of onset of their first depressive episode: early‐onset, midlife‐onset, and late‐onset. Performance on measures of visuospatial episodic memory, executive function, verbal working, and visual working memory were evaluated. Demographic and clinical characteristics such as age, education, and severity of symptoms during their worst previous depressive episode and current depression severity were included in multivariate regression models.

Results
The late‐onset depression group scored significantly lower on the verbal reasoning task than the early‐onset group while there were no significant differences found on the other tasks. Midlife‐onset depression participants performed better in the visual episodic memory task, but worse on the verbal reasoning task, than early‐onset depression participants. Current depression severity was negatively correlated with all four cognitive domains, while historical severity score was found to be significantly associated with cognitive performance on the verbal reasoning and spatial working memory tasks.

Conclusions
The most important indicator of cognitive performance in depression appears to be current, rather than historic depression severity; however, late‐onset depression may be associated with more executive impairment than an early‐onset depression

14
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Wong (2019)

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Background: Major depressive disorder (MDD) prevalence in Indigenous communities is higher than in the general population. Objective: To determine the risk and protective factors associated with MDD among Indigenous peoples living in Toronto. Database: Our Health Counts Toronto (OHCT) database, the largest urban Indigenous health study of 897 Indigenous adult participants, was accessed for analysis. Methods: Performed analyses using weighted generalized linear mixed modelling approaches. Results: Factors protecting against MDD include having a strong connection to Indigenous identity, smoking, and hallucinogen use. Risk factors for MDD include only completing a high school education and use of cannabis, crack, and amphetamine. Conclusion: The findings in this study suggest potential areas for preemptive measures against MDD, including establishing programs to help support a strong sense of cultural identity.

15
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Gudmundsen et al. (2018)

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This study documents the emergence of symptoms of anxiety and depression in a community sample of school-age children and describes the temporal progression of symptoms leading to depressive episodes. Caregivers of 468 seventh graders reported retrospectively the manifestation of 14 symptoms of depression and anxiety in their children from kindergarten through sixth grade. The sample was balanced by sex and reflected the racial and economic diversity of the urban school district. Childhood period prevalence was calculated for each symptom, and discrete time survival analyses compared likelihoods of early symptom emergence in children who did and did not meet diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder (MDD) by ninth grade. Symptom prevalence ranged between 20% (excessive guilt) and 50% (concentration problems) during the elementary school years. The 4-year period prevalence of MDD was 8.9%, 95% confidence interval [6.5%, 12.1%]. Low energy, excessive worry, excessive guilt, anhedonia, social withdrawal, and sadness or depressed mood were each associated with a significantly higher likelihood of onset of MDD. Compared to girls, boys were more likely to exhibit sad mood, fatigue, and trouble concentrating. Children who later met criteria for MDD demonstrated a significantly higher likelihood of showing core features of depressive and anxiety disorders during their elementary school years. The findings underscore the importance of recognizing early signs and developing interventions to help children manage early symptoms and prevent later psychiatric illness.

16
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Richards (2011)

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Depression is one of the leading causes of disease worldwide. Historically conceived as either a disease of the mind or of the brain, treatment options followed this aetiology. Current diagnostic assessment of depression is based on descriptions of symptoms, their presence and magnitude over time. Epidemiological studies demonstrate that depressive disorders are highly prevalent: displaying high rates of lifetime incidence, early age onset, high chronicity, and role impairment. These studies have deepened our understanding of the course of depression; remission, recovery, relapse and recurrence. An illustration of recovery rates has begun to demonstrate the complexity of the nature and course of depression. The majority recovers; however, recovery may not be permanent and future episodes carry the threat of chronicity. A key variable influencing rates of recovery, relapse, and recurrence is the presence of medical or psychiatric comorbid illnesses. The review considers the literature on Major Depression beginning with a brief historical overview, its classification, and a synthesis of the current knowledge regarding prevalence and course.

17
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Lewisohn et al. (1998)

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In this article we summarize our current understanding of depression in older (14–18 years old) adolescents based on our program of research (the Oregon Adolescent Depression Project). Specifically, we address the following factors regarding adolescent depression: (a) phenomenology (e.g., occurrence of specific symptoms, gender and age effects, community versus clinic samples); (b) epidemiology (e.g., prevalence, incidence, duration, onset age); (c) comorbidity with other mental and physical disorders; (d) psychosocial characteristics associated with being, becoming, and having been depressed; (e) recommended methods of assessment and screening; and (f) the efficacy of a treatment intervention developed for adolescent depression, the Adolescent Coping With Depression course. We conclude by providing a set of summary statements and recommendations for clinicians.

18
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Benjet et al. (2019)

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Eight-year incidence of MDD was 12.9% in youth from Mexico City.

Recurrence of MDD from adolescence through early adulthood was 46.1%.

Female sex, any trauma, sexual abuse, and private event predicted incidence of MDD.

Childhood onset and domestic violence was associated to recurrence of MDD.

Having a parent with depression was associated to both incidence and recurrence.

19
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Bailey et al. (2018)

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We aimed to establish the treatment effect of physical activity for depression in young people through meta-analysis. Four databases were searched to September 2016 for randomised controlled trials of physical activity interventions for adolescents and young adults, 12–25 years, experiencing a diagnosis or threshold symptoms of depression. Random-effects meta-analysis was used to estimate the standardised mean difference (SMD) between physical activity and control conditions. Subgroup analysis and meta-regression investigated potential treatment effect modifiers. Acceptability was estimated using dropout. Trials were assessed against risk of bias domains and overall quality of evidence was assessed using GRADE criteria. Seventeen trials were eligible and 16 provided data from 771 participants showing a large effect of physical activity on depression symptoms compared to controls (SMD = −0.82, 95% CI = −1.02 to −0.61, p < 0.05, I2 = 38%). The effect remained robust in trials with clinical samples (k = 5, SMD = −0.72, 95% CI = −1.15 to −0.30), and in trials using attention/activity placebo controls (k = 7, SMD = −0.82, 95% CI = −1.05 to −0.59). Dropout was 11% across physical activity arms and equivalent in controls (k = 12, RD = −0.01, 95% CI = −0.04 to 0.03, p = 0.70). However, the quality of RCT-level evidence contributing to the primary analysis was downgraded two levels to LOW (trial-level risk of bias, suspected publication bias), suggesting uncertainty in the size of effect and caution in its interpretation. While physical activity appears to be a promising and acceptable intervention for adolescents and young adults experiencing depression, robust clinical effectiveness trials that minimise risk of bias are required to increase confidence in the current finding. The specific intervention characteristics required to improve depression remain unclear, however best candidates given current evidence may include, but are not limited to, supervised, aerobic-based activity of moderate-to-vigorous intensity, engaged in multiple times per week over eight or more weeks. Further research is needed

20
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Saluja et al. (2004)

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Main Outcome Measures Depressive symptoms, substance use, somatic symptoms, scholastic behaviors, and involvement in bullying.

Results Eighteen percent of youths reported symptoms of depression. A higher proportion of females (25%) reported depressive symptoms than males (10%). Prevalence of depressive symptoms increased by age for both males and females. Among American Indian youths, 29% reported depressive symptoms, as compared with 22% of Hispanic, 18% of white, 17% of Asian American, and 15% of African American youths. Youths who were frequently involved in bullying, either as perpetrators or as victims, were more than twice as likely to report depressive symptoms than those who were not involved in bullying. A significantly higher percentage of youths who reported using substances reported depressive symptoms as compared with other youths. Similarly, youths who reported experiencing somatic symptoms also reported significantly higher proportions of depressive symptoms than other youths.

Conclusions Depression is a substantial and largely unrecognized problem among young adolescents that warrants an increased need and opportunity for identification and intervention at the middle school level. Understanding differences in prevalence between males and females and among racial/ethnic groups may be important to the recognition and treatment of depression among youths.

21
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Hamzah et al. (2019)

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ObjectivesWhile university life is characterized by the pursuit of greater educational opportunities and employment prospects, it can also be a trigger of mental health problems. This study aims to: (a) measure the prevalence of depression, anxiety, and stress among first-year undergraduate students in the University of Malaya, and; (b) determine the associated factors of depression, anxiety, and stress.MethodsThis cross-sectional study consisted of two phases: survey administration and physical assessment. In the first phase, data were collected electronically using a mobile application during the orientation week. The Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21) questionnaire was employed to assess respondents’ mental health status. In the second phase, anthropometric measurements which included height, weight, waist circumference, and blood pressure were taken.ResultsOf 1602 students, the prevalence of moderate to extremely severe depression was 21% (n=341), anxiety 50% (n=793), and stress 12% (n=197). Findings showed that students who lived with non-family members were more likely to develop depression (OR: 1.846, 95% CI: 1.266-2.693), anxiety (OR: 1.529, 95% CI: 1.024-2.284), and stress (OR: 1.655, 95% CI: 1.110-2.468). Those with previous medical history were more likely to have anxiety (OR: 1.697, 95% CI: 1.097-2.626). Interestingly, students from the Southern region (OR: 0.667, 95% CI: 0.468-0.950) and from Sabah and Sarawak (OR: 0.503, 95% CI: 0.281-0.900) were less likely to report depression.ConclusionsFuture intervention programs should follow the socio-ecological model while addressing university students’ mental health needs.

22
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Clement et al. (2019)

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Objectives: In fathers, depression symptoms experienced during pregnancy and after childbirth represent a depression risk factor during the child first months. Since depression can have a huge impact on their subsequent involvement with the child, this issue is worrisome and requires consideration. Until now, however, few studies have dealt with paternal depression and its determinants beyond the perinatal period. Method: This study uses data from a representative provincial survey conducted with 1342 fathers of children aged 6 months to 17 years. It documents the prevalence of moderate and severe depression symptoms with the CES-D scale as well as associated factors. Results: Findings show prevalence rates ranging from 3% to 10% depending on depression symptom severity and children age. Associated factors include problematic use of alcohol, no employment, stress related to balancing work and family, domestic violence environment, and low revenue and social support. Conclusion: These results are interpreted in light of the role and involvement fathers keep in their child’s life. They also stress the importance of identifying depression symptoms in this population beyond the perinatal period while monitoring the symptom intensity

23
Q

Jacobson and Newman (2017)

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Not only do anxiety and depression diagnoses tend to co-occur, but their symptoms are highly correlated. Although a plethora of research has examined longitudinal associations between anxiety and depression, these data have not yet been effectively synthesized. To address this need, the current study undertook a systematic review and meta-analysis of 66 studies involving 88,336 persons examining the prospective relationship between anxiety and depression at both symptom and disorder levels. Using mixed-effect models, results suggested that all types of anxiety symptoms predicted later depressive symptoms (r = .34), and all types of depressive symptoms predicted later anxiety symptoms (r = .31). Although anxiety symptoms more strongly predicted depressive symptoms than vice versa, the difference in effect size for this analysis was very small and likely not clinically meaningful. Additionally, all types of diagnosed anxiety disorders predicted all types of later depressive disorders (OR = 2.77), and all depressive disorders predicted later anxiety disorders (OR = 2.73). Most anxiety and depressive disorders predicted each other with similar degrees of strength, but depressive disorders more strongly predicted social anxiety disorder (OR = 6.05) and specific phobia (OR = 2.93) than vice versa. Contrary to conclusions of prior reviews, our findings suggest that depressive disorders may be prodromes for social and specific phobia, whereas other anxiety and depressive disorders are bidirectional risk factors for one another.

24
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Saito et al. (2019)

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Methods: A total of 502 participants (212 healthy controls, 163 patients with MDD and 127 patients with BP) were administered the Japanese version of the CATS; the Japanese version of the Temperament Evaluation of Memphis, Pisa, Paris, and San Diego Autoquestionnaire; and the Japanese version of the Patient Health Questionnaire-9. Data were analyzed by exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, as well as by univariate and multivariate analyses.

Results: A five-factor structure was appropriate for the CATS. The MDD group scored significantly higher on all subtypes of the reclassified CATS than did the control group. Among the subscales of the reclassified CATS, physical abuse and loneliness/psychological stress were significant predictors of affective temperaments, although all subscales were significantly associated with affective temperaments compared to the original CATS.

Limitations: Since child abuse was assessed retrospectively, there might be recall bias. Furthermore, as the study was limited to Japanese individuals, particularly those with mood disorders, the findings might not be generalizable.

Conclusions: This study revealed that the subtypes of child abuse (especially physical abuse and loneliness/ psychological stress) might be associated with MDD and BP.

25
Q

Clavarino et al. (2011)

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Method Data (3,512 mothers and 3,334 children) were from Mater-University of Queensland Study of Pregnancy (MUSP), a population-based birth cohort study, which commenced in Brisbane, Australia, in 1981. Mothers and children were followed up at birth, 6 months and 5, 14 and 21 years after the initial interview. Marital status and marital quality were assessed at 5 and 14 years. Symptoms of depression were assessed in mothers and children at the 21-year follow-up.

Results A poor-quality marital relationship at the 14-year follow-up was associated with increased symptoms of depression in both mothers (+3.3 symptoms) and children (+1.1 symptoms) 7 years later. Symptoms of depression in the mother improved if she changed to unpartnered status (-1.31 symptoms); however, children experienced an increase in depression (+1.30 symptoms). There was a substantial increase in mothers’ depression (+3.9 symptoms) associated with a poor reconstructed relationship but no change for children (0.68).

Conclusion Marital transitions may improve symptoms of depression in the mothers but not in their children. Clinical decisions for families living in some difficult marital relationships need to take into account the association between maternal and child mental health particularly evidence from clinical samples that remission of depression in the mother improves outcomes for the child.

26
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Sugawara et al. (2002)

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To investigate the relationship between marital relations and children’s depression, as mediated by family functioning and parental attitudes toward child rearing, a questionnaire survey was carried out using a mailed questionnaire. Questionnaires completed by the father, mother, and children (average age of fathers, 43 years; mothers, 39.8 years; children, 10.2 years) were received from 313 families out of 1,360 families originally contacted. Mothers and fathers were asked to answer independently questions regarding their marital relations, family atmosphere, family cohesion, and attitudes toward childrearing. Children’s depression was measured by a self-administered depression scale. The results supported the hypothesis that higher scores on the marital love scale were related to better family functioning and warmer parental attitudes toward child rearing, and that the marital love scale was negatively correlated with children’s depression. The mother’s warm attitude toward their children was correlated with lower depression in the children; no significant correlation of depression with attitude was found for fathers.

27
Q

Wang et al. (2019)

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Method: A total of 5726 middle and high school students aged 12-18 years old were chosen to participant in this study. Participants completed the self-reported questionnaire on childhood physical or long-term health problems, childhood maltreatment and depression.

Results: The results showed that there were significant differences of childhood maltreatment, depression between adolescents with childhood physical disability or long-term health problems and those without. Physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, physical neglect and emotional neglect mediated the association between childhood physical disability or long-term health problems and depression accounting for 8.7%, 20.6%, 14.5%, 16.3% and 14.7% of the total effect of physical disability or long-term health problems on depression in each single mediator model respectively, whereas the indirect effect of emotional abuse and sexual abuse in the association between physical disability or long-term health problems and depression explained 15.6% and 8.0% of the total effect in a multiple mediation model respectively.

Conclusion: Childhood physical disability or long-term health problems was associated with the increased risk for depression, and the associations between childhood physical disability and long-term health problems and depression were partially mediated by childhood maltreatment experiences. Childhood maltreatment exposure should be considered to prevent depression among adolescents with childhood physical disability or long-term health problems.

28
Q

Olfson et al. (2003)

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SUBJECTS. A nationally representative sample of children, 3 to 18 years of age (n = 8,360) with one or more parents living in the household.

MEASURES. Mental health problems, total health expenditures, and mental health expenditures.

RESULTS. Children of parents with depression were approximately twice as likely as children of parents without depression to have a variety of mental health problems and were 2.8 times more likely to use mental health services in adjusted analyses. Among children with health and mental health expenditures, those whose parents report depression had significantly higher mean total annual child health expenditures ($282 vs. $214, t = 3.5, P = 0.0006) and child mental health expenditures ($513 vs. $338, t = 2.0, P = 0.05) than children whose parents did not report depression.

CONCLUSIONS. Children of parents with depression are at increased risk for a range of health problems. Parental depression is also related to an increased child health and mental health service utilization and expenditure.

29
Q

Griffith et al. (2019)

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Concurrent associations between parenting behaviors and youth depression are well established. A smaller body of work has demonstrated longitudinal associations between aspects of parenting and youth risk for depression; however, this limited longitudinal work has predominantly relied upon self- and parent-report questionnaire measures and is thus affected by biases related to retrospective recall and common method variance. The present study used behavioral observation measures of parenting and clinical interview measures of youth depression to examine prospective relationships between observed parental support, responsiveness, criticism, and conflict and youths’ onset of a depressive episode in a 3-year longitudinal design. Participants included 585 community youth age 8-16 (M = 11.92, SD = 2.39, 56.6% female) and a participating caregiver. Parental behavior was coded by trained observers in the context of a 5-min conflict resolution discussion at the baseline assessment. Youth onset of depression was subsequently assessed every 6 months for a period of 3 years using the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School Aged Children (KSADS) to ascertain whether youth experienced onset of depressive episode over the follow-up. Logistic regression analyses indicated that greater parental conflict at baseline predicted higher odds of youth experiencing a depressive onset across the 3-year follow up period, even after controlling for youth and caregiver history of depression at baseline. Findings suggest that parental conflict is particularly influential in youth vulnerability to depression.

30
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Orchard and Reynolds (2018)

A

MethodsIn this study, adolescents were recruited from the community (n=212) and from a Child And Adolescent Mental Health Service (n=84). Participants completed measures of depressive symptoms, interpretation bias, self-evaluation, and recall memory. These included the Mood and Feelings Questionnaire, Ambiguous Scenarios Test for Depression in Adolescents, Self-Description Questionnaire, and an immediate recall task. The clinically referred sample also took part in a formal diagnostic interview.

ResultsIndividual cognitive biases were significantly intercorrelated and associated with depression severity. The combination of cognitive biases was a stronger predictor of depression severity than individual biases alone, predicting 60% of the variance in depression severity across all participants. There were two significant predictors, interpretation bias and negative self-evaluation; however, almost all of the variance was explained by negative self-evaluation.

ConclusionsThe findings support the interrelationship and additive effect of biases in explaining depression and suggest that understanding the way in which cognitive biases interact could be important in advancing methods of identification, early intervention, and treatment.

31
Q

Fiorilli et al. (2019)

A

Depression in adolescents can lead to social and educational impairment and is a major risk factor for suicide and substance misuse. Thus, predicting and preventing this disorder are extremely important. The current study aimed to analyze the contribution of adolescents’ self-esteem (i.e., quality of interpersonal relationships, control of life events, and management of negative emotions) and interpersonal stressor sources (relationships with parents, teachers, classmates and friends) in predicting several depression manifestations (i.e., depressed mood, sense of inadequacy, and insecurity). Participants were 182 Italian pre-adolescents and adolescents, aged 10-14 years, were recruited from three Italian schools. They were asked to complete a self-report questionnaire. Results showed that self-esteem was a major factor to be considered in adolescents’ depression. In particular, adolescents’ perception of negative emotion management was the most important protective factor against depression manifestations. Conversely, sources of interpersonal stressors contributed only marginally to depression. Among these, problems with parents and friends increased adolescents’ depressed mood, while troubles with classmates impacted on their sense of inadequacy and insecurity. Implications of these results for positive practices which could enhance adolescents’ self-esteem and further expansions of the study are discussed.

32
Q

Bartlett et al. (2019)

A

METHODS: A total of 232 adolescent girls (mean age 15.29 +/- 0.65 years) were assessed with the Stressful Life Events Schedule (a semistructured interview of stressors in the previous 9 months) and underwent a magnetic resonance imaging scan. FreeSurfer 5.3.0 was used to perform whole-brain surface-based morphometry. Dysphoria was assessed at the time of imaging and prospectively at three 9-month follow-up appointments using the Inventory of Depression and Anxiety Symptoms II.

RESULTS: At least one stressful life event was reported in 90% of the adolescent participants during the 9 months preceding imaging. Greater burden of recent life stress was associated with less left precuneus and left postcentral cortical thickness and smaller left superior frontal and right inferior parietal volume (all p < .05 after multiple comparisons correction). Left precuneus thickness in the stress-associated cluster significantly predicted dysphoria for 27 months after imaging controlling for prior dysphoria (beta= -.11, p = .004). Left precuneus cortical thickness accounted for 17.0% of the association between stress and dysphoric mood for 27 months after imaging (beta = .04, p = .05).

CONCLUSIONS: Consistent with evidence from imaging studies of trauma-exposed youths and preclinical stress models, a heavy burden of recent common life stress in community-dwelling adolescent girls was associated with altered frontal/parietal cortical morphology. Stress-linked precuneus cortical thickness represents a candidate prospective biomarker of adolescent depression.

33
Q

Qi et al. (2020)

A

Methods: Participants were 1241 adolescent survivors in Jiuzhaigou. Data were collected using the PTSD Checklist for the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, and the Chinese version of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale for Children.

Results: In total, 46.3% of participants reported PTSD, 64.5% reported depression, and 39.2% reported comorbid PTSD/depression symptoms. Risk factors for symptoms of these disorders were being female, having been injured or trapped, and intrusive rumination. High school students were less likely to report PTSD and comorbid PTSD/depression than middle school students. Participants with family members/friends that were injured or trapped reported more PTSD and comorbid symptoms than those without this experience. Loss of property also predicted PTSD. However, deliberate rumination was a protective factor for depression.

Limitations: This study did not cover all adolescents in Jiuzhaigou and all potential predictors. As we used a cross-sectional design, this study could not assess the trajectory of PTSD, depression, and comorbid symptoms after the earthquake.

Conclusion: The findings are meaningful for mental health care among adolescents after natural disasters such as an earthquake.

34
Q

Ren et al. (2018)

A

A large body of literature has examined the relations between social support and depression. However, the exact nature and direction of these relations are not well understood. This study explored the relations between specific types of social support (peer support and teacher support) and depression. Adolescents (ages 11 to 17) for the first time (N = 2453) participated in a two-wave, 6-month longitudinal study. Structural equation modeling was used to test a social causation model (deficits in social support increase the likelihood of depression), interpersonal theories of depression (depression leads to social erosion), and a reciprocal influence model. Depression influenced peer support significantly and negatively. By contrast, the social causation model was not supported. These results held for males and females. Findings suggested that depression resulted in social support erosion. However, the effect was specific to perceived peer support but not to perceived teacher support.

35
Q

Thabrew et al. (2018)

A

Long-term physical conditions affect 10% to 12% of children and adolescents worldwide; these individuals are at greater risk of developing psychological problems, particularly anxiety and depression. Access to face-to-face treatment for such problems is often limited, and available interventions usually have not been tested with this population. As technology improves, e-health interventions (delivered via digitalmeans, such as computers and smart phones and ranging fromsimple text-based programmes through tomultimedia and interactive programmes, serious games, virtual reality and biofeedback programmes) offer a potential solution to address the psychological needs of this group of young people.

36
Q

Wallin et al. (2019)

A

BackgroundThe incidence of major depression among adults has been shown to be socially differentiated, and there are reasons to seek explanations for this before adulthood. In this cohort study, we examined whether academic performance in adolescence predicts depression in adulthood, and the extent to which externalizing disorders explain this association.MethodsWe followed 26,766 Swedish women and men born 1967-1982 from the last year of compulsory school, at age about 16, up to 48years of age. We investigated the association between grade point average (GPA, standardized by gender) and first diagnosis of depression in national registers of in- or out-patient psychiatric care. We used Cox proportional hazards models, adjusting for lifetime externalizing diagnoses and potential confounders including childhood socioeconomic position and IQ.ResultsDuring follow-up, 7.0% of the women and 4.4% of the men were diagnosed with depression. A GPA in the lowest quartile, compared with the highest, was associated with an increased risk in both women (hazard ratio 95% confidence interval 1.7, 1.3-2.1) and men (2.9, 2.2-3.9) in models controlling for potential confounders. Additional control for externalizing disorders attenuated the associations, particularly in women.ConclusionsThe findings suggest that poor academic performance is associated with depression in young adulthood and that the association is partly explained by externalizing disorders. Our results indicate the importance of early detection and management of externalizing disorders among children and adolescents.

37
Q

Davidson et al. (2002)

A

Depression is a disorder of the representation and regulation of mood and emotion. The circuitry underlying the representation and regulation of normal emotion and mood is reviewed, including studies at the animal level, human lesion studies, and human brain imaging studies. This corpus of data is used to construct a model of the ways in which affect can become disordered in depression. Research on the prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate, hippocampus, and amygdala is reviewed and abnormalities in the structure and function of these different regions in depression is considered. The review concludes with proposals for the specific types of processing abnormalities that result from dysfunctions in different parts of this circuitry and offers suggestions for the major themes upon which future research in this area should be focused.

38
Q

Ho et al. (2019)

A

those with major depressive disorder had lower thickness and surface area of the hippocampus, amygdala and nuclear accumbens compared to controls

39
Q

Youssef et al. (2018)

A

Methods
Brain-derived neurotrophic factor Val66Met polymorphism was genotyped in postmortem brains of 37 suicide decedents and 53 nonsuicides. Additionally, brain-derived neurotrophic factor protein levels were determined by Western blot in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (Brodmann area 9), anterior cingulate cortex (Brodmann area 24), caudal brainstem, and rostral brainstem. The relationships between these measures and major depressive disorder, death by suicide, and reported early life adversity were examined.

Results
Subjects with the Met allele had an increased risk for depression. Depressed patients also have lower brain-derived neurotrophic factor levels in anterior cingulate cortex and caudal brainstem compared with nondepressed subjects. No effect of history of suicide death or early life adversity was observed with genotype, but lower brain-derived neurotrophic factor levels in the anterior cingulate cortex were found in subjects who had been exposed to early life adversity and/or died by suicide compared with nonsuicide decedents and no reported early life adversity.

Conclusions
This study provides further evidence implicating low brain brain-derived neurotrophic factor and the brain-derived neurotrophic factor Met allele in major depression risk. Future studies should seek to determine how altered brain-derived neurotrophic factor expression contributes to depression and suicide.

40
Q

Duman et al. (2019)

A

The mechanisms underlying the pathophysiology and treatment of depression and stress-related disorders remain unclear, but studies in depressed patients and rodent models are beginning to yield promising insights. These studies demonstrate that depression and chronic stress exposure cause atrophy of neurons in cortical and limbic brain regions implicated in depression, and brain imaging studies demonstrate altered connectivity and network function in the brains of depressed patients. Studies of the neurobiological basis of the these alterations have focused on both the principle, excitatory glutamate neurons, as well as inhibitory GABA interneurons. They demonstrate structural, functional, and neurochemical deficits in both major neuronal types that could lead to degradation of signal integrity in cortical and hippocampal regions. The molecular mechanisms underlying these changes have not been identified but are thought to be related to stress induced excitotoxic effects in combination with elevated adrenal glucocorticoids and inflammatory cytokines as well as other environmental factors. Transcriptomic studies are beginning to demonstrate important sex differences and, together with genomic studies, are starting to reveal mechanistic domains of overlap and uniqueness with regards to risk and pathophysiological mechanisms with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. These studies also implicate GABA and glutamate dysfunction as well as immunologic mechanisms. While current antidepressants have significant time lag and efficacy limitations, new rapid-acting agents that target the glutamate and GABA systems address these issues and offer superior therapeutic interventions for this widespread and debilitating disorder.

41
Q

Colle et al. (2019)

A

Aim Tryptophan is the sole precursor of both peripherally and centrally produced serotonin and kynurenine. In depressed patients, tryptophan, serotonin, kynurenine, and their metabolite levels remain unclear. Therefore, peripheral tryptophan and metabolites of serotonin and kynurenine were investigated extensively in 173 patients suffering from a current major depressive episode (MDE) and compared to 214 healthy controls (HC). Methods Fasting plasma levels of 11 peripheral metabolites were quantified: tryptophan, serotonin pathway (serotonin, its precursor 5-hydroxytryptophan and its metabolite 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid), and kynurenine pathway (kynurenine and six of its metabolites: anthranilic acid, kynurenic acid, nicotinamide, picolinic acid, xanthurenic acid, and 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid). Results Sixty (34.7%) patients were antidepressant-drug free. Tryptophan levels did not differ between MDE patients and HC. Serotonin and its precursor (5-hydroxytryptophan) levels were lower in MDE patients than in HC, whereas, its metabolite (5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid) levels were within the standard range. Kynurenine and four of its metabolites (kynurenic acid, nicotinamide, picolinic acid, and xanthurenic acid) were lower in MDE patients. Conclusion Whilst the results of this study demonstrate an association between the metabolites studied and depression, conclusions about causality cannot be made. This study uses the largest ever sample of MDE patients, with an extensive assessment of peripheral tryptophan metabolism in plasma. These findings provide new insights into the peripheral signature of MDE. The reasons for these changes should be further investigated. These results might suggest new antidepressant therapeutic strategies.

42
Q

Beck and Bredemeier (2016)

A

We propose that depression can be viewed as an adaptation to conserve energy after the perceived loss of an investment in a vital resource such as a relationship, group identity, or personal asset. Tendencies to process information negatively and experience strong biological reactions to stress (resulting from genes, trauma, or both) can lead to depressogenic beliefs about the self, world, and future. These tendencies are mediated by alterations in brain areas/networks involved in cognition and emotion regulation. Depressogenic beliefs predispose individuals to make cognitive appraisals that amplify perceptions of loss, typically in response to stressors that impact available resources. Clinical features of severe depression (e.g., anhedonia, anergia) result from these appraisals and biological reactions that they trigger (e.g., autonomic, immune, neurochemical). These symptoms were presumably adaptive in our evolutionary history, but are maladaptive in contemporary times. Thus, severe depression can be considered an anachronistic manifestation of an evolutionarily based “program.”

43
Q

LeMoult and Gotlib (2019)

A

Depression is characterized by negative cognitive biases and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies

Depression-related deficits in cognitive control over mood-congruent material may underlie other cognitive processes

Cognitive control deficits relate to maladaptive emotion regulation strategies, and negative biases in attention and memory

We discuss empirical evidence and implications for theory, practice, and future research

44
Q

Woody et al. (2019)

A

Girls look more at live cues of positive evaluation than potentially critical cues.

Dysphoric girls look longer at live cues of potentially critical evaluation.

Dysphoria was not related to looking at live cues of positive evaluation.

Dysphoric girls looked more at potentially critical evaluation relative to positive.

45
Q

Georgi et al. (2019)

A

Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) is one of the most-used rating scales. It was developed as a tool administered either as a self-rating or interview-based, observer-rating scale. Objective: The goal of this study is to compare BDI-II scores obtained with two standard methods of administration in community-based older persons. Methods: BDI-II was administered at first in the self-rated version to a sample of 60 mentally healthy older persons (age 60-87 years). Afterward, the interview-based administration was performed. Analyses: We compared the scores with nonparametric tests - Spearman’s correlation coefficient and Wilcoxon Signed Ranks test. We also computed internal consistency. Results: Self-rated BDI-II yielded significantly higher total score than interview (p < 0.001, P = 88%). The correlation between total scores was moderate (r(s) = 0.46, p < 0.001). Item analysis revealed a larger decrease (lower scores) in the somatic items in the interview-based version. Conclusions: The two methods of administration result in different total score in healthy older persons. Therefore, interpretation of the scores should reflect the administration, which should be always specified in the studies.

46
Q

Lee et al. (2018)

A

Methods: The participants were 406 patients with mixed psychiatric diagnoses including anxiety and depressive disorders from a psychiatric outpatient unit at a university-affiliated medical center. Responses of the Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI), Beck Depression Inventory (BDI)-II, and Symptom Checklist-90-Revised (SCL-90-R) were analyzed. We conducted an exploratory factor analysis of 42 items from the BAI and BDI-II. Correlational analyses were performed between subscale scores of the SCL-90-R and factors derived from the factor analysis. Scores of individual items of the BAI and BDI-II were also compared between groups of anxiety disorder (n = 185) and depressive disorder (n = 123).

Results: Exploratory factor analysis revealed the following five factors explaining 56.2% of the total variance: somatic anxiety (factor 1), cognitive depression (factor 2), somatic depression (factor 3), subjective anxiety (factor 4), and autonomic anxiety (factor 5). The depression group had significantly higher scores for 12 items on the BDI while the anxiety group demonstrated higher scores for six items on the BAI.

Conclusion: Our results suggest that anxiety and depressive symptoms as measured by the BAI and BDI-II can be empirically differentiated and that particularly items of the cognitive domain in depression and those of physical domain in anxiety are noteworthy.

47
Q

Murray et al. (2001)

A

Studies of cognitive vulnerability to depression in young children have, in the main, relied on self-report questionnaires (e.g. of self-esteem, attributional style). They have failed to produce convincing evidence of a cognitive vulnerability to depression in children under 8 years. In the current study latent depressive cognitions were investigated in the 5-year-old children (N = 94) of depressed and well mothers in a situation of mild stress, that is, the threat of losing a card deal in a modified version of the competitive children’s card game “Snap”. In the context of “losing”, but not “winning”, deals, children who had been exposed to maternal depression, either in the previous 12 months or at any other time during their lifetime, were more likely than nonexposed children to express depressive cognitions (hopelessness, pessimism, and low self-worth). The association between depressive cognitions and recent exposure to maternal depression was in part accounted for by current maternal hostility to the child. The results of this study stand in contrast to those of studies which have used questionnaire methods to assess vulnerability to depressive cognitions in this age group. They suggest that it might be important to employ ecologically realistic situations to access latent self-cognitions in young children; and they underscore the importance, increasingly evident in research with adults and older children, of employing methods that involve the induction of low mood in order to elicit cognitions relevant to depression.

48
Q

Sutherland et al. (2019)

A

parental depression significantly predicted children’s negative cognitions and attributions compared to controls

49
Q

Prenoveau et al. (2017)

A

Postnatal maternal depression is associated with poorer child emotional and behavioral functioning, but it is unclear whether this occurs following brief episodes or only with persistent depression. Little research has examined the relation between postnatal anxiety and child outcomes. The present study examined the role of postnatal major depressive disorder (MDD) and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) symptom chronicity on children’s emotional and behavioral functioning at 24 months. Following postnatal screening mothers (n = 296) were identified as having MDD, GAD, MDD and GAD, or no disorder at 3 months postnatal; the average age was 32.3 (SD = 5.0), 91.9% self-identified as Caucasian, and 62.2% were married. Maternal disorder symptom severity was assessed by questionnaires and structured interview at 3, 6, 10, 14, and 24 months postpartum. At 24 months, child emotional negativity and behavior were assessed using questionnaires and by direct observation. Latent trait–state-occasion modeling was used to represent maternal disorder symptom chronicity; both stable trait and time-specific occasion portions of maternal symptomatology were examined in relation to child outcomes. Only the stable trait portion of maternal MDD and GAD symptom severity were related to maternal report of child behavior problems and higher levels of emotional negativity. Persistent maternal MDD, but not GAD, symptom severity was related to higher levels of child emotional negativity as measured observationally. These data suggest that children’s behavior problems and emotional negativity are adversely affected by persistent maternal depression, and possibly anxiety. This has implications for interventions to prevent negative effects of postnatal psychopathology on children.

50
Q

Aidao et al. (2010)

A

We examined the relationships between six emotion-regulation strategies (acceptance, avoidance, problem solving, reappraisal, rumination, and suppression) and symptoms of four psychopathologies (anxiety, depression, eating, and substance-related disorders). We combined 241 effect sizes from 114 studies that examined the relationships between dispositional emotion regulation and psychopathology. We focused on dispositional emotion regulation in order to assess patterns of responding to emotion over time. First, we examined the relationship between each regulatory strategy and psychopathology across the four disorders. We found a large effect size for rumination, medium to large for avoidance, problem solving, and suppression, and small to medium for reappraisal and acceptance. These results are surprising, given the prominence of reappraisal and acceptance in treatment models, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy and acceptance-based treatments, respectively. Second, we examined the relationship between each regulatory strategy and each of the four psychopathology groups. We found that internalizing disorders were more consistently associated with regulatory strategies than externalizing disorders. Lastly, many of our analyses showed that whether the sample came from a clinical or normative population significantly moderated the relationships. This finding underscores the importance of adopting a multi-sample approach to the study of psychopathology.

51
Q

Sanchez-Lopez et al. (2019)

A

We tested predictions from the impaired disengagement model of rumination.

A five-month longitudinal design with two eye-tracking assessments was used.

Positive disengagement predicted brooding decreases at high stress levels.

Positive disengagement predicted decreases in depressive symptoms via brooding.

Habitual brooding predicted longer negative disengagement at high stress levels.

52
Q

Sheppes et al. (2015)

A

Emotional problems figure prominently in many clinical conditions. Recent efforts to explain and treat these conditions have emphasized the role of emotion dysregulation. However, emotional problems are not always the result of emotion dysregulation, and even when emotional problems do arise from emotion dysregulation, it is necessary to specify precisely what type of emotion dysregulation might be operative. In this review, we present an extended process model of emotion regulation, and we use this model to describe key points at which emotion-regulation difficulties can lead to various forms of psychopathology. These difficulties are associated with (a) identification of the need to regulate emotions, (b) selection among available regulatory options, (c) implementation of a selected regulatory tactic, and (d) monitoring of implemented emotion regulation across time. Implications and future directions for basic research, assessment, and intervention are discussed.

53
Q

Davoodi et al. (2019)

A

Scant research has investigated emotion regulation strategies in somatization disorder, despite its high comorbidity with depression and the growing interest in this topic in depression. The present study investigated emotion regulation strategies in patients with major depression and somatization disorder using clinical samples to examine common vulnerability factors and to provide evidence for difficulties in emotion regulation as transdiagnostic factors in these disorders. Patients with major depressive disorder (n = 30) and patients with somatization disorder (n = 30) completed measures of putatively adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation strategy use. Patients with somatization disorder showed higher scores on measures of regulatory strategies, as measured by the sum of adaptive strategies in the Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire as well as the following subscales: positive refocusing, positive reappraisal, and refocusing on a plan. After controlling for levels of current depression, the significant effects remained for positive refocusing. Depression symptom severity was significantly and negatively correlated with most adaptive strategies and positively correlated with most maladaptive strategies. The current results provide preliminary data for a similar pattern of adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies usage in these two disorders. The results also contribute to theories of psychopathology and our understanding of critical cognitive and emotional processes.

54
Q

Kovacs and Yaroslavsky (2014)

A

Method
We review clinical, behavioral, and functional neuroimaging studies of dysphoric experience and its regulation in depressed children and adolescents, and in juvenile offspring of parents with histories of clinical depression. We discuss the implication of the literature in the context of maternal depression.

Results
Findings confirm the high rate of clinically significant dysphoria in depressed children and adolescents and reveal notable affective lability in daily life as a function of context and activity. Findings also show that depressed youngsters have problems in attenuating dysphoria. Similarly, never‐depressed offspring at familial risk for depression display problems in mood repair and impaired mood repair mechanisms. Brain neuroimaging findings indicate that, overall, depressed, and high‐risk youngsters differ from never depressed controls in neural functioning (activation, connectivity) both at rest and in response to emotion triggers.

Conclusion
The evaluation of depressed youngsters should include questions about reactivity of dysphoric mood to the changing contexts of daily life and about how they manage (respond to) their own sadness and distress. The resultant information may help the clinician to restructure a young patient’s day for the better and identify helpful mood repair responses. Evidence of impaired mood repair mechanisms in youngsters at high‐risk for depression suggests the need for early intervention. But interventions must consider that many depressed and high‐risk children have depressed mothers, who may be constrained in their ability to help offspring’s emotion regulation efforts. To optimize treatment response of offspring, mothers of depressed children should therefore be routinely screened for depression and treated, as warranted.

55
Q

Rothenberg et al. (2019)

A

Nearly half of adolescents experience depressive or aggressive symptoms that impair their functioning at some point in adolescence. Experiencing intense difficult emotions and difficulties regulating such emotions may lead to these depressive and aggressive symptoms. However, existing work largely investigates how adolescent emotions at a single time point predict adolescent depressive or aggressive symptoms months or years later. New investigations are needed to capture the dynamic, changing nature of adolescents’ daily experiences of emotions and symptoms of mental distress. Such investigations would further understanding of how emotions affect mental health in adolescents’ everyday lives. Answering this call, the present study investigated how emotion dysregulation moderated and mediated daily associations between sadness and depressive symptoms and between anger and aggression utilizing ecological momentary assessment in a community sample of 103 Italian adolescents (Mage = 16.77, SD = 0.78, range: 15–18 years old; 47% female). The results revealed that if an adolescent experienced higher-than-usual sadness or anger on a particular day, then they also experienced higher than usual depressive or aggressive symptoms, respectively. Emotion dysregulation mediated and moderated these associations. Adolescents with higher anger had greater difficulties regulating their anger, which led to higher aggressive symptoms (a mediating effect). If adolescents’ sadness was higher than usual on a given day, their depressive symptoms were more severe than usual if they also had higher than usual difficulties regulating sadness (a moderating effect). These findings contribute to our understanding of how emotions impact mental distress on a daily basis for adolescents, emphasize the importance of examining specific adolescent emotions, and shed new light on how emotional regulatory capacities influence emotions and mental health in adolescents’ everyday lives.

56
Q

Loevaas et al. (2018)

A

Method
The present study is part of the Coping Kids study in Norway, a randomized controlled study of a new indicated preventive intervention for children, EMOTION. EMOTION aims to reduce levels of anxious and depressive symptoms in children aged 8–12 years. Using cross sectional data and multiple regression analyses, we investigated the relations between anxious and depressive symptoms and emotion regulation in n = 602 children. Symptoms were reported by the child, mothers and fathers. Emotion regulation was reported by mothers and fathers.

Results
Symptoms of anxiety, as reported by parents, were associated with poorer emotion regulation. This association was also demonstrated for depressive symptoms as reported by both parents and children. When analyzing same gender reports, parental gender did not differentiate the relationship between anxiety symptoms and emotion regulation. For depressive symptoms, we did find a differentiating effect of parental gender, as the association with dysregulation of emotion was stronger in paternal reports, and the association with adaptive emotion regulation was stronger in maternal reports. When using reports from the opposite parent, the emotion regulation difficulties were still associated with depressive and anxiety symptoms, however exhibiting somewhat different emotional regulation profiles.

Conclusion
Problems with emotion regulation probably coexists with elevated levels of internalizing symptoms in children. In future research, both caregivers should be included

57
Q

Parade et al. (2018)

A

Family context moderated the effect of maternal depression on change in infant temperament.

58
Q

Ryan et al. (2019)

A

Introduction: Depression is a common non-motor symptom in Parkinson disease (PD), occurring in approximately 20% of patients with PD. While depression can occur anytime in the disease process, it predates PD diagnosis in about 30% of patients. Between 20% and 60% of depressed patients with PD are either without recognition or treatment of their depression. Areas covered: The pathophysiology of depression in PD is unclear. There are several structural changes seen in depressed patients with PD that are also seen in patients with depression. In addition, the neurotransmitters dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine are all depleted in PD. This article covers the pharmacological treatment of depression in PD; this involves standard antidepressant treatment such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, tricyclic antidepressants, serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors, and monoamine oxidase inhibitors. As with depression not associated with PD, most treatment is partially successful. Non-pharmacological approaches are also touched upon. Expert opinion: Most antidepressant therapy shows partial efficacy in patients with PD. However, there is a need for better study design as well as more comparative studies for the treatment of depression in PD. Biomarkers will help identify patients with PD and depression earlier in the future.

59
Q

Garay et al. (2017)

A

Introduction: The authors describe the medications for treatment-resistant depression (TRD) in phase II/III of clinical development in the EU and USA and provide an opinion on how current treatment can be improved in the near future.Areas covered: Sixty-two trials were identified in US and EU clinical trial registries that included six investigational compounds in recent phase III development and 12 others in recent phase II clinical trials. Glutamatergic agents have been the focus of many studies. A single intravenous dose of the glutamatergic modulator ketamine produces a robust and rapid antidepressant effect in persons with TRD; this effect continues to remain significant for 1week. This observation was a turning point that opened the way for other, more selective glutamatergic modulators (intranasal esketamine, AVP-786, AVP-923, AV-101, and rapastinel). Of the remaining compounds, monoclonal antibodies open highly innovative therapeutic options, based on new pathophysiological approaches to depression.Expert commentary: Promising new agents are emerging for TRD treatment. Glutamatergic modulators likely represent a very promising alternative to monoaminergic antidepressant monotherapy. We could see the arrival of the first robust and rapid acting antidepressant drug in the near future, which would strongly facilitate the ultimate goal of recovery in persons with TRD.

60
Q

Urech et al. (2019)

A

Background: Blended cognitive behavioural therapy (bCBT), which combines face-to-face (FtF), and internet-based cognitive behavioural therapy (iCBT), may be a particularly promising approach, but little is known about the effectiveness and patients’ subjective evaluations of the bCBT format. The aim of this qualitative study is to explore perceived advantages and disadvantages of bCBT from the patients’ perspective in specialized mental health care. Methods: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 15 patients suffering from major depression who underwent treatment in a bCBT format. The interview data were processed by means of a qualitative content analysis. Results: The content analysis generated 18 advantages and 15 disadvantages which were grouped into 6 main topics. In general, bCBT was perceived as purposive and effective for treating depression. The patients perceived the combined treatment as complementary and emphasized the advantage of the constant availability of the online programme. Furthermore, a segment analysis revealed that patients reported different advantages and disadvantages of bCBT as a function of the severity of their depressive episode. Conclusion: The findings of the present study reveal advantages and disadvantages of bCBT, which should be taken into account in the further implementation of this new treatment format.

61
Q

Riley and Gaynor (2014)

A

This study examined therapeutic mechanisms of action at the single-participant level in a behavior therapy (BT) for youth depression. By controlling for non-specific early responses, identifying potential mechanisms of action a priori, taking frequent measures of hypothesized mechanisms and dependent variables, rigorously evaluating internal validity, and using a variety of analytic methods, a unique model for analysis of potential mediators was created. Eleven children (M age = 9.84) meeting criteria on the Children’s Depression Rating Scale-Revised (M = 55.36) and Children’s Depression Inventory (M = 23.45) received non-directive therapy (NDT), followed by BT for those still displaying significant symptoms. Four participants (36%) had a clinically significant response to NDT. For the remaining seven, statistically significant changes in depressive symptoms and family interactions during the BT interval were found at the group level. At the single-participant level, evidence suggesting that outcome was at least partially mediated by changes in treatment targets was obtained for four of seven (57%). As the field further embraces efforts to learn not only whether treatments work but also how they work, the single-participant approach to evaluating mediators provides a useful framework for evaluating theories of therapeutic change.

62
Q

Eckshtain and Gaynor (2009)

A

Recent meta-analytic data suggest a need for ongoing evaluation of treatments for youth depression. The present article calls attention to a number of issues relevant to the empirical evaluation of if and bow cognitive behavior therapy for child depression works. A case series of 6 children and a primary caregiver received treatment-individual CBT for the child and behavioral parent training involving the caregiver and caregiver-child dyad. The effects were generally promising and illustrate bow selection of inclusion criteria, measures, measurement intervals, and informants can alter conclusions. These areas warrant attention in studies of child depression and are important not only in interpreting treatment outcome data but also for conducting sound clinical practice.

63
Q

Danielsen et al. (2013)

A

Methods: The sample consisted of 49 children with obesity (aged 7-13 years; mean +/- SD: 10.68 +/- 1.24). Families were randomly assigned to immediate start-up of treatment or to a 12-week waiting list condition. Outcome measures were body mass index standard deviation score (BMI SDS), self-esteem, symptoms of depression and blood parameters indicative of cardio-metabolic risk. Assessments were conducted at baseline, post-treatment, post-waiting list and 12 months after treatment termination.

Results: The mean reduction for the treatment group was -0.16 BMI SDS units compared with an increase of 0.04 units for the waiting list group (p = .001). For the entire sample, there was a significant post-treatment improvement on BMI SDS (p = .001), all self-esteem measures (p = .001-.041) and symptoms of depression (p = .004). The mean BMI SDS reduction was -0.18 units post-treatment, and it was maintained at 12-month follow-up. Significant reductions were found in blood lipid levels of total cholesterol (p = .03), LDL-cholesterol (p = .005) and HDL-cholesterol (p = .01) at 12-month follow-up. The favourable effect on most of the psychological measures waned from post-treatment to follow-up, but not approaching baseline levels. Boys demonstrated significantly greater reductions in BMI SDS than girls (p = .001), while baseline psychiatric co-morbidity did not influence BMI SDS outcome.

Conclusions: The treatment shows significant and favourable effects on BMI SDS, self-esteem and symptoms of depression compared with a waiting list condition.

64
Q

Valdez et al. (2011)

A

A non-experimental pilot study examined child, mother and family outcomes of a 10-session multi-family group intervention designed to reduce risk and promote resilience for mothers with depression and their families. Positive changes following the Keeping Families Strong intervention included mother-reported decreases in child behaviour and emotional problems, improvements in the quality of family interactions and routines and improvements in their own well-being and support from others. Children (9-16 years) reported decreased internalizing symptoms, improved coping, increased maternal warmth and acceptance and decreased stressful family events. Attendance and mother-reported satisfaction were high, indicating the perceived value of the intervention.

65
Q

Shen (2002)

A

This study investigated the effectiveness of short-term child-centered group play therapy in elementary school settings with Chinese children in Taiwan who experienced an earthquake in 1999. Children in the experimental group scored significantly lower on anxiety level and suicide risk after play therapy than did children in the control group. The effects of the treatment support previous studies of play therapy with American children. These findings reveal the possibility of disaster intervention services adopting Western helping techniques with school children of non-Western cultures.

66
Q

Chatoor et al. (2019)

A

Method
A new method “focused family play therapy” was applied. It goes beyond free play or structured play therapy, in that the therapist involves the parents in the play and not only models the situation which creates the child’s fears, but also shows through dolls how to be brave and overcome the fears.

Results
The current case report demonstrates how the combination of refeeding the child during family meals, participating in focused family play therapy to help the child overcome her fears of eating, and prescribing sertraline to treat her depression was an effective treatment for both the anorexia nervosa and depression.

Discussion
This technique may be effective with children ranging in age from 3 to 6 years.