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Genetics Test I - Jourdan > Introduction, Chromosome Structure, Mitosis > Flashcards

Introduction, Chromosome Structure, Mitosis Flashcards

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0
Q

Genome:

A

Is a complete set of genetic instructions for any organism

Can either be RNA or DNA

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1
Q

Who was Archibald Garrod?

A

First to recognize that albinism was an inheritable trait that was located on a specific chromosome

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2
Q

The coding system for genomic information is _______?

A

Very similar among organisms

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3
Q

What are the three major subdivisions of genetics?

A

Transmission, molecular, and population genetics

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4
Q

What is transmission genetics?

A

Encompasses basic principles of heredity and how traits are passed from one generation to the next

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5
Q

What is molecular genetics?

A

Concerns the chemical nature of the gene itself and how genetic information is encoded, replicated, and expressed

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6
Q

What is population genetics?

A

Explores the genetic composition of groups of individual members of the same species and how that composition changes geographically and with the passage of time. It is fundamentally the study of evolution

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7
Q

What are the early theories relating to inheritance?

A

Pangenesis, inheritance of acquired characteristics, preformationism, and blending inheritance

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8
Q

What is pangenesis?

A 
Developed by Greek philosophers
Specific particles (gemmules) carry information from various parts of the body to reproductive organs (sperm,egg), from which they are passed to the embryo at the moment of conception
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9
Q

What is the Germ-plasm theory?

A

According to the germ-plasm theory, germ-line tissue in the reproductive organs that contains a complete set of genetic information that is transferred directly to the gametes

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10
Q

What is the inheritance of acquired characteristics theory?

A

Primarily made famous by Lamarck
Traits acquired in a person’s lifetime become incorporated into that person’s hereditary information and are passed on to offspring

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11
Q

What is the theory of preformationism?

A

According to preformationism, inside the egg or sperm there exists a fully formed miniature adult, a homunculus, which simply enlarges in the course of development.
Preformationism meant that all traits were inherited from only one parent

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12
Q

What is the theory of blending inheritance?

A

Offspring are a blend of parental traits and the genetic material itself blends. Once blended, genetics differences cannot be separated out in future generations.
**yellow+blue=green; cant separate green to get yellow and blue again

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13
Q

What is cell theory?

A

All life is composed of cells, and cells arise only from cells

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14
Q

What is mendelian inheritance?

A

Traits are inherited in accord with defined principles

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15
Q

What early concepts of heredity are correct?

A

Germ-plasm theory, cell theory and mendelian inheritance

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16
Q

What are the top 6 model genetic organisms?

A 
Drosophila melanogaster - Fruit fly
Escherichia coli - Bacterium 
Caenorhabditis elegans - Nematode
Arabidopsis thaliana - Thale-cress plant
Mus musculus - House mouse
Saccharomyces cerevisiae - Baker's yeast
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17
Q

What are model genetic organisms?

A

Organisms with characteristics that make them useful for genetic analysis

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18
Q

What properties, in general, make the top 6 organisms valuable as model genetic organisms?

A

Short generation time
Production of numerous progeny
The ability to carry out controlled genetic crosses
The ability to be reared in a laboratory environment
The availability of numerous genetic variants
There is an accumulated body of knowledge about their genetic systems

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19
Q

How can studying genetic model organisms help in understanding human genetics?

A

Research on bacteria, yeast, insects, worms, fish, rodents and plants has shown that the basic operating principles are nearly the same in all living things. So a finding made in fruit flies can shed light on a biological process in people.

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20
Q

What are two basic types of cells?

A

Eukaryotic and prokaryotic

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21
Q

What is the fundamental unit of heredity?

A

Gene

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22
Q

A gene that specifies a characteristic may exist in several forms called ______?

A

Alleles

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23
Q

Genes, along with environmental factors, determine what?

A

Expression of traits.

**Genes confer phenotype

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24
What is genetic information carried in?
RNA and DNA
25
Where are genes located?
Chromosomes
26
How do chromosomes separate?
Through the processes of mitosis and meiosis
27
Where is genetic information from DNA transferred to?
To RNA then to protein
28
What are mutations?
Permanent changes in genetic information that can be passed from once cell to another or from parent to offspring
29
What is evolution?
Genetic change
30
Some traits are affected by what? Give an example
by multiple genes that interact in complex ways with environmental factors. Human height, for example, is affected by hundreds of genes as well as environmental factors such as nutrition.
31
Gene:
an inherited factor that determines a characteristic.
32
Allele:
One of two or more alternate forms of a gene
33
Phenotype
The appearance or manifestation of a character
34
Genotype
Set of alleles possessed by an individual organism
35
Chromosome
A thread-like structure of nucleic acids and proteins, carrying genetic information in the form of genes
36
Mitosis
A type of cell division that results in two alike daughter cells
37
Meiosis
A type of cell division that results in four daughter cells with half the number of chromosomes as the parent
38
Flow of genetic information
DNA-------->RNA--------->Protein
39
What are the characteristics of prokaryotes?
- Nucleus is absent - 1 to 10um in diameter - Usually a single circular DNA molecule - Histones absent in eubacteria, but is in some archaea - Small amount of DNA - No membrane-bound organelles - No cytoskeleton
40
What are the classes of prokaryotes?
Eubacteria and Archaea
41
What types of cells can be unicellular or multicellular with membrane-bound organelles?
Eukaryotes
42
What are some of the implications of all organisms having similar genetic systems? a. That all life forms are genetically related b. That research findings on one organism's gene function can often be applied to other organisms c. That genes from one organism can often exist and thrive in another organism? d. All the above
d. all the above
43
Define the term: Inherited determinant of the phenotype Elements that control traits Located at a specific position on a chromosome referred to as a locus
Gene
44
Describe prokaryotic cell reproduction
Simple division: separation of replicated circular chromosome Origin of replication There is a high rate of replication
45
What are the characteristics of eukaryotes?
``` Membrane-bound nucleus 10-100um in diameter Multiple linear DNA molecules Histones Large amount of DNA Membrane-bound organelles Cytoskeleton ```
46
What are eukaryote chromosomes associated with?
Histones to form tightly packed DNA
47
What is DNA + histones?
chromatin
48
What doe histone proteins limit?
Accessibility of enzymes and other proteins to copy and read DNA
49
What doe Histones enable?
DNA to fit within the nucleus
50
What must eukaryotic DNA be separate from before genetic information can be accessed?
Histones
51
Homologous chromosomes:
Two chromosomes of a pair share the same loci. Eukaryotic chromosomes are typically found in pairs
52
A set of chromosomes consists of what?
One member of each pair of chromosomes
53
Diploid cells
Two complete sets of chromosomes
54
Haploid (monoploid)
Cell has a single complete set of chromosomes
55
Tetraploid
Cells that have four complete sets of chromosomes
56
Triploid
Cells that have three complete sets of chromosomes
57
Centromere
Serves as the attachment point for spindle microtubules
58
What are the four classes of chromosome location?
Metacentric, submetacentric, acrocentric, telocentric
59
Short arm of a chromosome is called a ______
p arm
60
Long arm of a chromosome is called a _____
q arm
61
How many pairs of chromosomes do humans have?
23
62
One chromosome can be either ______ or _______
One chromatid or two sister chromatids
63
What are the stable ends of chromosomes?
Telomeres
64
What is a constricted region of the chromosome where the kinetochores form and the spindle microtubules attach?
centromere
65
What are four characteristics of telomeres?
Located at the natural ends of a linear chromosome Provide chromosome stability May limit cell division May play a role in aging and cancer
66
What is a telomerase? What is its function?
A ribonucleoprotein that is an enzyme that adds DNA sequence repeats (TTAGGG). It allows the DNA to be completely replicated; preventss shortening of chromosome
67
Origins of replication:
Are sites where DNA synthesis begins
68
What are the 2 major results of mitosis?
There is usually an increase in cell numbers | The resulting daughter cells are genetically identical
69
During embryonic development, what does mitosis produce?
Produces a stockpile of cells for embryogenesis
70
Organismal growth occurs through what process?
Mitotic activity (hyperplasia)
71
What provides a mechanism for the replacement of damaged or worn-out cells?
Mitosis
72
The cell cycle consists of a number of stages that are a part of a continuum. Name the stages
``` G-0 phase G-1 phase S phase G-2 phase M phase ```
73
What are the stages in the cell cycle that are a part of Interphase?
G-1, S, and G-2
74
What are the G-1 phase activities?
First gap/growth phase Concentration of G-1(s)-cyclins increases G-1-cyclin binds to inactive cdc2 kinase MPF is activated at the end of this phase and leads to activities needed for DNA synthesis
75
Which stage is highly variable with regard to time?
G-1 phase
76
What is the G-0 phase?
Term used to describe the condition of a cell that has been taken out of the classical cell cycle
77
What are the S phase activities?
``` DNA synthesis Chromosome replication G-1-cyclins degraded cdc2 kinase inactive B(M)-cyclin concentration begins to increase towards end of S phase ```
78
How long does the S phase last?
About 7 hours
79
What are the G-2 activities?
Further preparation for mitotic division B(M)-cyclins bind to cdc2 kinase Activated MPF leads to activities necessary for mitosis
80
How long does G-2 phase last?
about 2 hours
81
What activities happen during M phase?
Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase B(M)-cyclin is degraded towards the end of the phase Cdc2 kinase becomes inactivated
82
How long does the M phase lasts?
.7 hours
83
What state are the chromosomes in during Interphase?
Decondensed
84
Before the S phase of cell cycle, each chromosome consists of _______
1 chromatid
85
After S phase of a cell cycle, each chromosome consists of ________
2 chromatids bound by centromere
86
What are prophase activities?
Centrioles move to opposite poles Spindle apparatus is organized Nuclear membrane begins to disintegrate Chromosomes become condensed
87
When are chromosomes visible as separate entities with light microscope?
During Mitosis when they become condensed
88
What are the metaphase characteristics?
Chromosomes are located at center of cell along equatorial plate (usually) Spindle fibers are attached to kinetochores Centromeres divide at the end of metaphase Chromosome number has doubled
89
What happens during Anaphase?
Daughter chromatids move to opposite poles
90
What happens during Telophase?
Chromosomes begin to uncoil Nuclear membranes reform Cytokinesis usually occurs and two daughter cells are separated
91
What happens if cytokinesis does not occur?
There many still be two nuclei, but they will be located in a single cell (endomitosis)
92
What are characteristics of embryonic cells?
These cells proceed immediately to the next cell cycle with little time in the G-1 phase Cell does not grow or differentiate
93
What are examples of embryonic cells?
Embryonic cells and some types of tumor cells
94
What are characteristics of labile cells?
These cells spend more time in the G-1 stage and grow and become differentiated
95
What are examples of Labile cells?
Epithelial cells in the gut lining and epidermis | Hematopoietic cells
96
What stage are non-dividing cells in?
These cells become permanently locked in the G-1 stage and never divide again
97
What are examples of non-dividing cells?
Skeletal muscle cells, cardiac muscle cells, neurons
98
Karyokinesis:
Physical division of nuclear material
99
Cytokinesis:
Physical division of cytoplasmic material
100
Endomitosis:
Karyokinesis is not followed by cytokinesis
101
What does endomitosis result in?
An increase in ploidy
102
Ploidy:
Increase in complete sets of chromosomes

Genetics Test I - Jourdan (6 decks)

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