Introduction to Psychology and Welfare Y1 Flashcards

Question

30-40,000 yr old mummified foal from Ice Age (Pleistocene era) found in Siberia (2018)

Answer 1

30-40,000 yr old mummified foal from Ice Age (Pleistocene era) found in Siberia (2018) Link - https://www.livescience.com/63514-cloning-ice-age-foal-siberia.html From week 2 lecture notes

Answer 2

Domestication  Cave paintings from 25000 years ago  Caves in Pech Merle in southern France feature horses painted white with black spots ⚫ Beneficial during the ice age? ⚫ Why is it so rare now?  Modern breeds have LP gene – 2 copies suffer from night blindness  8-10,000 yrs ago horses became extinct In North America ⚫ Ice Age came to an end ⚫ Effects of man’s predation upon them  In Europe and Asia warmer climates saw a resurgence of forests and migration of horses From lecture notes

Answer 3

Landraces .Basis for breed designation Record keeping * Breed Societies * Breeding programmes * Promote the breed * Authentication Geographical Location * Hanoverian, Andalusian, Arab etc. Phenotypic Characteristics * Thoroughbred, Apaloosa, Paint etc. From week 2 lecture notes

Answer 4

Number of breeds .Selective breeding - breeding for specific traits e.g. fast, strong. .There are approximately 400 different breeds of horses – although they all come from one species – equus caballus. The breeds can be broken down roughly into 5 categories * Draft or Heavy Horses * Warmbloods or Sport Horse Breeds * Light Horses * Gaited Horses * Ponies (Miniature Horses?) From week 2 lecture notes

Answer 5

Behavioural Adaptations  May not be as obvious as physical ones.  Horses are constantly exposed to predators, so: ⚫ Alert, constantly on the lookout for danger, quick reaction time; “Flighty” ⚫ Wary of novel stimuli; “Spooky” ⚫ If cannot flee (such as when restrained), fights  Fight/Flight - important for survival in the past Week 2 lecture notes

Answer 6

Natural Selection – ‘Survival of the Fittest’  Is about optimal reproduction not survival (ability to survive e.g escape from predators, get food)  Maximising reproductive success is where fitness comes into it.  Those variations that help an individual in competition for resources are known as adaptive variations e.g. long legs  They help an individual to survive and reproduce for longer  The offspring of these individuals will inherit these adaptive characteristics and will themselves survive and reproduce for longer than those lacking it  The characteristic then becomes established in the population – evolution has taken place From week 2 lecture notes

Answer 7

Selection Pressure  Is the ‘driving force’ behind evolution through natural selection  The selection pressure for the horse = changes to the environment (Hulbert, 1996):  Forest /swamp open plains From week 2 lecture notes

Answer 8

Behaviour is Adaptive  Like any characteristic, variations occur in behaviour  These behaviours may be adaptive or maladaptive to the animal.  Adaptive behaviours will be help an animal to survive and reproduce  Maladaptive behaviours will be selected out as they are not beneficial to the animal From week 2 lecture notes

Answer 9

Equine Adaptations  Social animal, lives in a group, relies on herdmates for survival  Advantages and Disadvantages to group living (Mills and Nankervis, 1999)  Communication: group living requires clear, unambiguous methods of communication for survival. From week 2 lecture notes

Answer 10

Is the Horse Still Evolving?  Not by natural selection; humans dictate which horses breed and which don’t  Horses are artificially selected by humans, breeding horses which have characteristics and traits that we value  Are “abnormal” behaviours adaptive? From week 2 lecture notes

Answer 11

Has Horse Behaviour Changed Through Domestication?  It is unlikely that over the 5000 years that the horse has been domesticated that there have been any changes in behaviour and underlying motivations  Most breeding horses are selected for their physical attributes rather than for their behaviour, or ability to cope with a non-natural environment  Do we have behavioural problems or do horses have adaption problems? .When can't eat will do oral behaviour e.g. crib biting, licking  The modern horse’s psychology is probably very similar to that of the first horses to be domesticated  The modern domestic environment is very different to that the horse evolved in  This has important implications for the management and welfare of horses From week 2 lecture notes

Answer 12

Evolution Summary  Evolution through time has seen many species of Equus  Only those with adaptive characteristics suited to their environment survived  The term Equidae includes horses, zebras, asses and donkeys  Share a number of similar physiological and behavioural characteristics From week 2 lecture notes

Answer 13

NATURAL HORSE BEHAVIOUR  Prey animal  Seek to avoid pain, discomfort and aversive stimuli  Gregarious species  Spend most of their time grazing and resting together  Travel to find resources From week 3 lecture

Answer 14

NATURALLY LIVING HORSES  Feral horse populations  No truly wild horses any more  Some free-ranging domestic populations that are managed  Around the world  Various habitats - Deserts, mountains, forests, barrier islands, swampy areas  These different environments can have a marked impact on the behaviour of the populations From week 3 lecture

Answer 15

SOCIAL ORGANISATION  Horses live in groups/bands/harems - Family - Bachelors  Several groups may make up a herd that co-exist in one large area - Have over-lapping home ranges - Share resources - Move between groups https://www.ndbh.org/the-horses.html From week 3 lecture

Answer 16

STALLIONS BEHAVIOURS  Reproduction  Play with foals  Defence  Herding From week 3 lecture

Answer 17

MARES BEHAVIOURS  Loyal to band stallion  Care and protection of offspring  Eating - so they have enough milk to feed foal From week 3 lecture

Answer 18

YOUNGSTOCK BEHAVIOUR  Colts  Fillies  Stay with band until sexually mature/longer  Play  Learn From week 3 lecture

Answer 19

MAINTENANCE BEHAVIOURS Ingestion/elimination  Eating & drinking  Defecation and urination  Hind-gut fermenter  Eats large quantities of fibre  Grazing involves walking Coat care  Grooming, parasite control  Rolling, scratching, rubbing  tail swishing Thermoregulation (behavioural)  Conserving/dissipating heat  Selecting an environment to minimise thermal stress Locomotion  Mostly walking during grazing  Travel to find resources  Flee from aversive stimuli Rest  Standing rest – drowsy or SW sleep  Recumbence – SW sleep or REM  Varies with season  Fully recumbent ~1hr/day from week 3 lecture

Answer 20

SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR  Can you remember the benefits of group living?  Structure  Not dominance and subordinance  Cohesion & Synchrony  Agonistic behaviours  Affiliative behaviours  Bonding From week 3 lecture

Answer 21

PREDATORS  Reports of: - Coyotes in Canada - Brown hyenas in Namibia - Mountain lions in Nevada, California - Wolves in Portugal From week 3 lecture

Answer 22

What affects behaviour .How horses behave in nature is affected by their environment .Horses have fairly simple requirements to exist, survive and reproduce .They want to avoid harmful stimuli, live in groups to stay safe and co-exist peacefully .Horses are not naturally aggressive but will defend themselves From week 3 lecture

Answer 23

What is behaviour? Behaviour is what living animals do, and what dead animals don't do. Behaviour is an expression of physiology. There are two broad ways in which we tend to describe behaviour: 1. We can detail the physical actions involved in a behaviour; how one part moves relative to either another part of the body or the environment. For example, we might say that a horse has extended its foreleg, or that it is galloping. 2. Alternatively we may describe the consequences of the behaviour or the suspected aim. For example. we might say that one horse is threatening or attacking another. This will often involve an element of interpretation, which can cause problems. .A horse dozing in a field is performing lust as much behaviour as a horse that is fighting, riding a bike, or turning somersaults! These are all complex actions which involve the integration of several behavioural acts. From Equine Behaviour: Principles and Practice e-book page 3

Answer 24

Phylogeny The evolutionary history of a behaviour explains how it is adapted to its environment and is often referred to as its phylogeny. From Equine Behaviour: Principles and Practice e-book page 4

Answer 25

The disciplines of psychology and ethology .The disciplines of psychology and ethology not only complement each other well but are inextricably linked. You cannot have behaviour without both nature and nurture. .Behaviour is the consequence of the constant interaction of genetic factors with the environment; a process called epigenesis. Indeed, we could describe behaviour as a phenotypic characteristic, just like size or coat colour. .Unlike other phenotypic characteristics, however, behaviour is variable on a day-to-day, or even a minute-by-minute basis. From Equine Behaviour: Principles and Practice e-book page 7

Answer 26

Phenotypic .We have already suggested that behaviour is a phenotypic feature, i.e. it is the result of the interaction between the environment and genetics at any given moment in time. From Equine Behaviour: Principles and Practice e-book page 8

Answer 27

The Horse in Human Society .Humans have relied on horses over centuries for a variety of reasons - Development of culture and civilisation - Instrumental in agriculture, transport .Still a range of different requirements for the horse - Developing countries - Rich countries from week 4 lecture

Answer 28

Horse Eras .Era of Consumption (50,000BC to present) .Era of Utilization and Status (4000BC to 1900AD) .Era of Herding (3500BC to present) .Era of the Chariot (1700BC-400AD ) .Era of the Cavalry (700BC – 1942AD) .Era of Agriculture (900AD – 1945AD) .Era of the Carriage (1700AD-1920AD) .Era of Leisure – (1900 to present) from week 4 lecture

Answer 29

History of Horse Sport .680 BC Horse sport introduced to the Ancient Olympic Games - Ridden competitions - Chariot races .Men only - Military participation. Only mount on left-hand side so the sword doesn't get in the way . .Olympic Games -Establish in 1896 -Equestrian Sports introduced in Paris 1900 -In 1952 non-commissioned officers and women were allowed to compete. Dressage only at this time. -In 1964 the Olympics held 6 mixed equestrian events same as present day. Individual and team medals. from week 4 lecture

Answer 30

Facts and figures .1924 – 65,000 pit ponies in UK .1920 – 2.2 million horses in UK -774,934 draught farm horses -411,307 horses in ‘trade’ -19,743 Thoroughbreds -620,766 light horses -254,707 draught horses <3yrs old -110,708 army horses (Chivers, 1988) -19% used for transport from week 4 lecture

Answer 31

Horses in Society .Leisure .Companionship .Sport and Gambling - second biggest sport in UK after football. 32 million pounds put into vet research, breeding research from racing so far 2022. .Agriculture .Entertainment - circuses .Tv and movies .Fishing .Hunting .Transport .Armed forces .Ceremonial .Cavalry - ceremonial now .Police .Meat .Therapy - hippotheraphy, RDA, PAT, psychological and rehabilitation .Guide horses .China for border force control BETA 2019 .£4.7 billion consumer spending in the equine sector .27 million people in Britain with an interest in the equestrian industry .3 million people rode in the last year .374,000 horse-owning households in Britain – a drop from the 446,000 in 2015 .Estimated horse population in Britain = 847,000 from week 4 lecture

Answer 32

What drives behaviour  External stimuli  Internal hormonal & neural mechanisms  Instinct  Fixed action patterns  Reflexes  Motivation  Experience and learning  Development (Ontogeny) of behaviour – - changes that are affected by genes and experience From week 5 lecture

Answer 33

Stimuli  What is a stimulus? ◼ a thing or event that evokes a specific functional reaction  Change in the environment ◼ Temperature ◼ Sound ◼ Smell ◼ Touch ◼ Hunger ◼ Pain ◼ Threat From week 5 lecture

Answer 34

Instinctive behaviours  Instinct can be defined as ‘behaviour which does not require learning or practice, but which appears appropriately the first time it is needed’ (Manning and Dawkins, 1998)  Innate “in-born”  Can be improved and modified through learning  Complex behaviour patterns (FAPS) From week 5 lecture

Answer 35

4 Key Instinct Behaviours  Standing  Suckling  Running  Neighing From week 5 lecture

Answer 36

4 Fs  Fight, Flight, Fidget, Freeze  Not always seen in their extremes - Look for subtle versions of each  The best way to avoid further injury from a predator  Horse is still fearful and anxious  Can be a dangerous situation From week 5 lecture

Answer 37

Self defence 4Fs of self defence Fight - Efforts to remove the threat Flight - Move or run away from the threat - Avoidance and escape Fidget/ Fiddle about - Keep your distance, please don’t hurt appeasement gesture to defuse a threat - Stress - Indicating unease - Restrained but cannot flee Freeze - Go very still in the hope the threat will go away Tonic Immobility (Freeze) - Temporary inability to move - Immobility presumed to be an escape response - In response to restraint/extreme fear From week 5 lecture

Answer 38

Reflexes  Require no conscious thought - Breathing - Blinking - Shivering off a fly  Performed by reflex arcs  Brain stimulation is not required From week 5 lecture

Answer 39

Startle  Involuntary response  Not under conscious control  Startle reflex – “spook”  Followed by: -Freeze - Flight - Fight  Lack of a startle response could indicate a shut-down horse – “bomb-proof”? From week 5 lecture

Answer 40

Fixed action patterns  Unlearned, invariable, instinctive  More common in birds and animals with lower brain function - e.g. Courtship rituals  Behaviour elicited by a stimulus that brings about an instinctive response - Pandiculation (stretching) - Yawning - Sexual behaviours From week 5 lecture

Answer 41

Motivation  Driving force behind behaviours  Needs, desires - Need vs want  Affected by emotions, intrinsic and extrinsic factors  Incentive based  Importance in learning From week 5 lecture

Answer 42

Motivation process 1)Unfulfilled needs, wants and desires 2)Tension 3)Drive 4)Personality, perception, previous learning 5)Behaviour 6)Goal or need fulfilment 7)Tension reduction From week 5 lecture

Answer 43

Experience and learning  Domestication  Need to learn new behaviours that are not instinctive - Picking up a foot - Halter pressure  Immediate “survival” not obvious - Avoid negative responses  Therefore long-term benefit to learn and modify responses = survival From week 5 lecture

Answer 44

Week 5 summary  Range of factors affect the behaviour of the horse  Many are instinctive to ensure survival of the individual  Whether in the wild or domestic setting, horses are subjected to pressures that encourage the development of traits which are adaptive to survival in that environment From week 5 lecture

Answer 45

Instinctive Behaviour Patterns The horse has what are called instinctive behaviour patterns. These are behaviours that do not have to be learned. The horse just seems know it has to do these things. The types of behaviours referred to as instinctive are suckling, standing, running and neighing. These behaviours tend to be nearly complete the first time they are expressed, although they are still fine-tuned and modified by learning. The association between the behaviour and the consequence also tends to be made very rapidly, often after only a single, short exposure. The foals first fumbling attempts at suckling may soon gain it some milk, but there is room for improvement with experience once the association between teat and milk is made. From https://moodle.writtle.ac.uk/pluginfile.php/1193417/mod_resource/content/0/Instinctive%20%20Learned%20Behaviour.pdf

Answer 46

Learned Behaviour Learned behaviours take much longer to develop and are much more obviously affected by the environment. For example, an unhandled youngster will not automatically pick up its foot for you the first time it is asked. However, it soon learns the routine once it has been repeated a couple of times. In either case there has not been any change in the biological ability of either the suckling foal or the unhandled youngster. In both circumstances the horse has simply become more efficient at doing something it was physically capable of doing all along. The difference between an instinctive and a learned behaviour would seem to be determined by how much learning the horse has to do. As some behaviours come more easily to some animals than others, the line between learned and instinctive behaviours may be a little blurred at times. From https://moodle.writtle.ac.uk/pluginfile.php/1193417/mod_resource/content/0/Instinctive%20%20Learned%20Behaviour.pdf

Answer 47

Sign stimuli Instinctive behaviours tend to be triggered by fairly general events, known as sign stimuli. Most of the hardware (instructions from the brain) required for the expression of instinctive behaviours is already loosely linked together at birth. This also means that instinctive behaviour is less likely to be changed by the environment. If the environment in which the horse lives is different to that in which the behaviour pattern evolved, the horse may show a totally inappropriate behaviour. For example, a young horse taken to its first show may not stand quietly. When it sees other horses trotting and cantering around, its instinctive behaviour is to move with the herd. Is it any wonder it wont stand quietly by the float but instead wheels around excitedly, pulls back and takes off to join the others? The behaviour is labelled inappropriate and stupid, (as the horse is not behaving as we would like it to). This is not the case. It is a survival technique. Over time however, the horse will learn to tolerate the stimulus at the show, and will then stand quietly at the float. From https://moodle.writtle.ac.uk/pluginfile.php/1193417/mod_resource/content/0/Instinctive%20%20Learned%20Behaviour.pdf

Answer 48

Foals effect of human intervention The foal is not born with a picture of its mother in its head. It may be born with a behavioural tendency to head towards a dark under-surface (like that found under the mare's belly). In the wild, the mare will often be alone and away from the rest of the herd when she foals. It is likely that the only dark under surface in the area is her belly. The programme the foal is born with is fine in these circumstances but in a domestic environment there is a risk that the programme will not prove as effective. For example, the foal will head for the nearest dark area, which may be a feeder in the corner of the stable, or an assisting human. The flexibility of instinctive behaviours is very limited. These bouts of important behaviour development and learning phases have been called critical periods or sensitive phases. Foal imprinting is carried out at birth to take advantage of this critical period. From https://moodle.writtle.ac.uk/pluginfile.php/1193417/mod_resource/content/0/Instinctive%20%20Learned%20Behaviour.pdf

Answer 49

Horse startle .Berger’s colleague Alexali Brubaker, PhD, of the University of California, Davis, department of psychology, explained that "even spooky horses can often be naturally inclined to explore new things voluntarily if the new things aren’t forced upon them." .In riding or training situations she suggested waiting patiently until a horse’s natural curiosity draws it to investigate something From https://moodle.writtle.ac.uk/pluginfile.php/1193418/mod_resource/content/0/Researchers%20Study%20Horses%20Startle%20Response%20to%20Novel%20Objects%20%E2%80%93%20The%20Horse.pdf

Answer 50

Reflex At the cellular level, reflexes involve a sensory detector and afferent neurones which are linked, within the central nervous system, to an efferent motor neurone. This pathway is known as the reflex arc. In a few reflexes there is a direct connection via a single synapse in the spinal cord between the afferent and efferent neurone. An example is the 'kneejerk' reflex, which involves a sudden twitch of a limb muscle caused by tapping the tendon. Most reflexes, however, are 'polysynaptic' as they involve one or more intermediate neurones. An unpleasant stimulus, such as a pin prick, applied to a limb will cause it to be promptly withdrawn. As the flexor muscle is made to contract, signals to the antagonistic extensor muscle, which acts in the opposite direction, are inhibited allowing it to relax. This stops the two muscles from working against each other. But if the horse simply pulled one leg up, it might lose balance and fall over. So the muscles in the other limbs are commanded to redistribute the weight of the body to maintain balance. Coordination of movement in this way occurs more or less automatically. Usually, higher brain centres, and not just the spinal cord, are involved in these more complex reflexes. Although the initial response to the pin prick is instantaneous and involuntary, the message is likely to filter up to a level where the horse becomes aware of a painful or unpleasant sensation. This may then provoke a voluntary reaction, such as running away or kicking out. From start of page 3 https://moodle.writtle.ac.uk/pluginfile.php/1193419/mod_resource/content/0/Nervous%20and%20endocrine%20systems%2C%20equine%20senses%20and%20learning.pdf

Answer 51

The endocrine (hormonal) system A hormone is a chemical messenger secreted into the circulation by an endocrine gland. It is carried by the blood stream to target cells which contain receptors for the particular message. When hormone molecules bind to receptors, a response is initiated. For example, when blood pressure falls, perhaps as a result of haemorrhage and reduction in blood volume, the pituitary gland secretes a hormone called ADH (antidiuretic hormone) which acts on the kidneys, its target organs. This causes them to reabsorb more water and produce a concentrated urine, thus limiting further fluid loss. From page 4 https://moodle.writtle.ac.uk/pluginfile.php/1193419/mod_resource/content/0/Nervous%20and%20endocrine%20systems%2C%20equine%20senses%20and%20learning.pdf

Answer 52

The peripheral nervous system The peripheral nervous system consists of nerve bundles extending out from the CNS to the body and limbs. Peripheral nerves may be classified by function into afferent nerves (bringing signals into the CNS) and efferent nerves (carrying signals out). The efferent nerves can be subdivided into somatic and autonomic nerves. Somatic nerves have cell bodies in the brainstem or spinal cord and run their axons directly to muscle cells. These are often called 'motor' neurones because their activity leads to contraction of the innervated muscle. Autonomic nerves make connections, via synapses in cell clusters called ganglia, to smooth muscle in blood vessels and to glands throughout the body. From page 4 https://moodle.writtle.ac.uk/pluginfile.php/1193419/mod_resource/content/0/Nervous%20and%20endocrine%20systems%2C%20equine%20senses%20and%20learning.pdf

Answer 53

The close connection between the endocrine and nervous systems .Is illustrated by the combined activities of the sympathetic nervous system and adrenal glands. In stressful situations, when an animal is forced to challenge an attacker or run from it (the 'fight or flight' response), there is widespread stimulation of the sympathetic system of the body. This results in a rapid pulse and rise in blood pressure. The output of the heart is increased and the flow of blood directed primarily to the skeletal muscles, at the expense of that to the skin and abdominal organs. The middle part of the adrenal glands, the adrenal medulla, secretes the hormone adrenaline, which is chemically very similar to the substance noradrenaline produced at the endings of sympathetic nerves. Adrenaline evokes the same responses as impulses in the sympathetic nerves. It also produces a marked increase in metabolic rate. Thus the combined effect of the endocrine and nervous systems is to prepare the body for emergency. From page 5 https://moodle.writtle.ac.uk/pluginfile.php/1193419/mod_resource/content/0/Nervous%20and%20endocrine%20systems%2C%20equine%20senses%20and%20learning.pdf

Answer 54

Sight importance .The ancestors of modern horses avoided being eaten by fleeing first and evaluating the situation later. Vision is the primary danger detector for a horse, as well as influencing almost every other aspect of his behaviour. .The size of the eyes (the largest of any land mammal), the area of the cerebrum devoted to processing visual information, and the fact that a third of all sensory input to the brain comes from the eyes, indicate the relative importance of sight How the eyes work .Eyes work by focusing rays of light from external objects to form an upsidedown image on a layer at the back of the eye called the retina. There photoreceptors (lightsensitive cells) transform the image into a pattern of nerve impulses which are conveyed, via the optic nerve, to the brain. Two types of photoreceptors are present in both horse and human retina: rods and cones. From page 5 and 6 https://moodle.writtle.ac.uk/pluginfile.php/1193419/mod_resource/content/0/Nervous%20and%20endocrine%20systems%2C%20equine%20senses%20and%20learning.pdf

Answer 55

Progressive desensitisation A gentler alternative is called 'progressive desensitisation'. Here exposure to the stimulus is carefully controlled so that the horse never becomes fearful enough to precipitate the flight reaction. This approach takes longer, but is less likely to have secondary effects on the horse's attitude to people. From page 11 https://moodle.writtle.ac.uk/pluginfile.php/1193419/mod_resource/content/0/Nervous%20and%20endocrine%20systems%2C%20equine%20senses%20and%20learning.pdf

Answer 56

'classical conditioning a horse learns that a signal or cue, initially of no significance, is followed by an event or stimulus which is significant (and which produces a response). For example, in the wild, the appearance of a predator may be preceded by the alarm call of a bird. By learning this natural signal, a horse's ability to survive may be increased. In the domestic setting, a horse may similarly learn to associate the sound of buckets with feeding. From page 11 https://moodle.writtle.ac.uk/pluginfile.php/1193419/mod_resource/content/0/Nervous%20and%20endocrine%20systems%2C%20equine%20senses%20and%20learning.pdf

Answer 57

'operant conditioning ', also known as trial and error learning, the performance of a behaviour is changed by the consequences of that behaviour, which may be pleasant or unpleasant. When a newborn foal discovers where its mother's teats are located, it is immediately rewarded with its first drink. The foal's tendency to head for a dark undersurface may be instinctive, but the most efficient ways to obtain milk are learned through trial and error. In this example, suckling behaviour is learned through 'positive reinforcement': something pleasant occurs after the initial action of sucking which makes the action more likely to occur again on future occasions. The 'something' here is the ingestion of milk, which satisfies a physiological need From page 11 https://moodle.writtle.ac.uk/pluginfile.php/1193419/mod_resource/content/0/Nervous%20and%20endocrine%20systems%2C%20equine%20senses%20and%20learning.pdf

Answer 58

'Negative reinforcement' also increases the likelihood of an action. However, in this case the action is performed in order to escape or avoid an unpleasant or aversive stimulus. Thus a horse learns to yield to pressure applied through a halter. By moving his head in the direction of pull, he is rewarded by an instant release of pressure and regaining of comfort. With good timing, lighter and lighter contact can be learned. In contrast, punishment is an aversive stimulus given after an action with the intention of decreasing its likelihood. It may succeed in stopping an unwanted behaviour, but in general it is an antiquated approach not wellsuited to horses. It may make a fearful horse more afraid or an aggressive horse more aggressive. These emotional states are not conducive to learning. From page 11 https://moodle.writtle.ac.uk/pluginfile.php/1193419/mod_resource/content/0/Nervous%20and%20endocrine%20systems%2C%20equine%20senses%20and%20learning.pdf

Introduction to Psychology and Welfare Y1 Flashcards

(83 cards)