Introduction to Research in Psychology Flashcards
(4 cards)
What is the scientific method?
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The scientific method is a systematic process for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge, involving steps such as observation, hypothesis formulation, experimentation, and validation.
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Define hypothesis.
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A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction about the expected outcome of a study, often formulated based on existing theories or prior research.
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What is operationalization?
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Operationalization is the process of defining abstract concepts in measurable terms, allowing researchers to collect data and test hypotheses effectively.
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Explain the difference between reliability and validity in measurement.
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Reliability refers to the consistency and stability of a measurement across time and different observers, while validity indicates how well a measurement truly reflects the concept it intends to measure.
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What are the key types of validity?
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The key types of validity include content validity (how well the measure covers the construct), criterion-related validity (how well one measure predicts another), and construct validity (how well the measure relates to the theoretical construct it is intended to measure).
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What is a Type I error?
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A Type I error occurs when a researcher incorrectly rejects the null hypothesis, concluding that there is an effect or difference when none exists.
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What is a Type II error?
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A Type II error occurs when a researcher fails to reject the null hypothesis when it is false, concluding that there is no effect or difference when one actually exists.
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Define quantitative research.
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Quantitative research involves the collection and analysis of numerical data to identify patterns, test theories, and make predictions about behavior or outcomes.
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What is the null hypothesis?
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The null hypothesis is a statement that there is no effect or relationship between variables, serving as a default or starting point for statistical testing.
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How do confidence intervals relate to statistical analysis?
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Confidence intervals provide a range of values within which we can be reasonably certain that the true population parameter lies, helping to assess the precision and reliability of sample estimates.
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What is the role of the literature review in research?
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A literature review summarizes existing research on a topic, identifies gaps in knowledge, and provides a context for the current study, guiding the research questions and methodology.
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Explain the concept of empirical research.
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Empirical research is based on observed and measured phenomena, relying on data collected through observation or experimentation to draw conclusions.
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What is the significance of statistical power in hypothesis testing?
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Statistical power is the probability of correctly rejecting the null hypothesis when it is false, influencing the likelihood of detecting true effects in a study.
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Define the term ‘concept’ in psychological research.
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A concept is an abstract idea or general notion that represents a class of phenomena or characteristics, such as intelligence, happiness, or anxiety.
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What is the purpose of using multiple indicators in research?
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Using multiple indicators allows for a more comprehensive assessment of complex constructs, improving the reliability and validity of the measurements.
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How does one ensure that a measure has good reliability?
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To ensure good reliability, researchers should use standardized procedures, clearly define constructs, and assess consistency through methods like test-retest or internal consistency checks.
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What are the four levels of measurement?
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The four levels of measurement are nominal (categorical), ordinal (ranked), interval (equal intervals without a true zero), and ratio (equal intervals with a true zero).
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What is meant by ‘data triangulation’?
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Data triangulation involves using multiple data sources, methods, or investigators to enhance the credibility and validity of research findings.
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Define ‘empirical evidence.’
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Empirical evidence refers to information acquired by observation or experimentation that can be verified and is used to support or refute a hypothesis.
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What is a construct in psychological measurement?
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A construct is a theoretical concept that is being measured, such as intelligence or self-esteem, often operationalized through specific indicators or scales.
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How do researchers assess the validity of a study?
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Researchers assess the validity of a study by evaluating whether the study accurately measures what it intends to measure, ensuring the results are generalizable and relevant.
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What is the difference between qualitative and quantitative research?
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Qualitative research focuses on exploring and understanding complex phenomena through non-numerical data, while quantitative research emphasizes measuring and analyzing numerical data.
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What is the importance of ethical considerations in psychological research?
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Ethical considerations ensure that research is conducted responsibly, protecting participants’ rights, welfare, and dignity, and maintaining the integrity of the scientific process.
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What does it mean for a measurement to be valid?
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A measurement is valid if it accurately reflects the concept it is intended to measure, free from bias and distortion.
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What is the scientific method?
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The scientific method is a systematic process for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge, involving steps such as observation, hypothesis formulation, experimentation, and validation.
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What is validity in the context of psychological research?
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Validity refers to the extent to which a score or measurement accurately reflects the construct it is intended to measure. It encompasses how well the research findings align with theoretical expectations.
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What are the three broad categories of validity?
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The three broad categories of validity are measurement validity, internal validity, and external validity. Measurement validity assesses whether the tool measures what it claims to measure, internal validity focuses on whether the observed effects are due to the manipulation of variables, and external validity concerns the generalizability of the findings to real-world settings.
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Define internal validity.
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Internal validity is the degree to which a study can demonstrate a causal relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable, ensuring that no other variables are influencing the results.
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What is external validity?
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External validity refers to the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to, or have relevance for, settings, people, times, and measures other than the ones used in the study.
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What is reliability in psychological research?
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Reliability is the consistency of a measurement across time and across different observers. A reliable measure will yield the same results under consistent conditions.
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What is the difference between reliability and validity?
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Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure, while validity refers to how well a measure assesses the construct it is intended to measure. A measure can be reliable but not valid.
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What are some common threats to internal validity?
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Common threats to internal validity include selection bias, maturation, history effects, testing effects, instrumentation changes, and experimenter bias. These threats can distort the perceived relationship between variables.
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What is selection bias?
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Selection bias occurs when non-random factors influence which participants are assigned to different groups in a study, potentially skewing the results.
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What is regression to the mean?
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Regression to the mean is a statistical phenomenon where extreme scores on one occasion tend to be closer to the average on subsequent occasions. This can complicate the interpretation of results in psychological research.
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What is ecological validity?
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Ecological validity is a type of external validity that assesses whether research findings can be generalized to real-world settings. It considers whether the study environment reflects everyday life.
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How can researchers enhance internal validity?
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Researchers can enhance internal validity by randomly assigning participants to groups, using control groups, maintaining consistency in procedures, minimizing dropout rates, and controlling for confounding variables.
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What is face validity?
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Face validity refers to the extent to which a test appears to measure what it is supposed to measure, based on subjective judgment rather than statistical analysis.
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What is construct validity?
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Construct validity is the degree to which a test or tool accurately measures the theoretical construct it is intended to measure. It encompasses both convergent and discriminant validity.
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What is the purpose of pilot testing in research?
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Pilot testing is conducted to refine research instruments and procedures before the main study. It helps identify issues with the measurement tools and ensures clarity and effectiveness.
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What strategies can improve external validity?
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To improve external validity, researchers can use diverse and representative samples, replicate studies in various settings, conduct field experiments, and ensure findings apply across different times and contexts.
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Define convergent validity.
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Convergent validity is a form of construct validity that assesses whether two measures that are supposed to be related are indeed related. It demonstrates that similar constructs yield similar results.
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What is discriminant validity?
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Discriminant validity is a measure of how well a test distinguishes between different constructs, indicating that measures of different constructs should not correlate highly.
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What is the role of random assignment in research?
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Random assignment is crucial in experimental research as it helps ensure that each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any group, thus controlling for confounding variables and enhancing internal validity.
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How can experimenter bias affect research outcomes?
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Experimenter bias occurs when the experimenter’s expectations or beliefs inadvertently influence the outcome of the study, potentially skewing results and affecting the validity of the conclusions drawn.
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What is validity in the context of psychological research?
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Validity refers to the extent to which a score or measurement accurately reflects the construct it is intended to measure. It encompasses how well the research findings align with theoretical expectations.
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What is the primary aim of experimental research design?
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The primary aim of experimental research design is to determine causal relationships between variables by manipulating independent variables and observing their effect on dependent variables.
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What is the difference between independent and dependent variables?
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The independent variable (IV) is the factor that is manipulated by the researcher, while the dependent variable (DV) is the outcome that is measured to assess the effect of the IV.
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What is randomization in experimental design?
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Randomization is the process of randomly assigning participants to different groups in an experiment to reduce biases and ensure that each group is equivalent at the start of the experiment.
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Define internal validity.
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Internal validity refers to the extent to which a study accurately establishes a causal relationship between the independent and dependent variables, free from confounding factors.
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What is a control group?
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A control group is a group of participants in an experiment that does not receive the experimental treatment or intervention, allowing researchers to compare results against the experimental group.
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What is the significance of replicability in experimental research?
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Replicability ensures that experiments can be repeated under the same conditions to yield consistent results, thereby confirming the reliability of the findings.
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How do reliability and validity differ?
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Reliability refers to the consistency of a measurement across time or different observers, while validity refers to the accuracy of a measurement in capturing what it is intended to measure.
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What are the four types of reliability?
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The four types of reliability are Test-retest reliability, Inter-rater reliability, Split-half reliability, and Parallel forms reliability.
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What is a one-group posttest-only design?
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A one-group posttest-only design is a weak experimental design where a single group is given a treatment and then measured on the outcome, without a control group for comparison.
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What is the purpose of operationalization in research?
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Operationalization involves defining how variables will be measured in a study, allowing for observable and quantifiable assessments of constructs.
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What does a mixed design in experimental research entail?
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A mixed design combines elements of both between-subjects and within-subjects designs, allowing researchers to investigate interactions between different factors while using the same participants across some conditions.
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Explain the term ‘selection bias’.
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Selection bias occurs when the participants included in a study are not representative of the general population, potentially affecting the study’s internal validity and the generalizability of the results.
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What is the Solomon four-group design?
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The Solomon four-group design is an experimental design that includes two groups receiving a pretest and two groups not receiving a pretest, allowing researchers to assess the effects of pretesting on the dependent variable.
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What are the advantages of between-subjects designs?
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Between-subjects designs are advantageous when studying irreversible changes, using intact groups, and when treatments have carryover effects that could bias results.
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What is the role of confounding variables in experimental research?
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Confounding variables are extraneous factors that can influence the outcome of an experiment, potentially leading to inaccurate conclusions about the relationship between independent and dependent variables.
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Define external validity.
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External validity refers to the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other settings, populations, or times, beyond the specific conditions of the study.
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What is the importance of clear instructions in an experiment?
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Clear instructions are crucial in an experiment to ensure that participants understand the procedure, which helps minimize confusion and variability in responses, leading to more reliable results.
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What is a factorial design?
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A factorial design is an experimental design that examines the influence of two or more independent variables simultaneously, providing insights into the interaction effects between these variables.
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How does one assess the validity of a study?
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Assessing the validity of a study involves evaluating the study’s design, measurement tools, and the extent to which the findings can be accurately interpreted and generalized to broader contexts.
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What is the primary aim of experimental research design?
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The primary aim of experimental research design is to determine causal relationships between variables by manipulating independent variables and observing their effect on dependent variables.
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What is correlational research?
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Correlational research examines the relationship between two or more variables without manipulating them. It identifies whether and how strongly pairs of variables are related.
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What does a correlation coefficient of r = 0.98 indicate?
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An r value of 0.98 indicates a very strong positive correlation between the two variables, suggesting that as one variable increases, the other variable also tends to increase.
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Why is correlation not equivalent to causation?
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Correlation does not imply causation because it does not show that one variable causes changes in another. Both variables may be influenced by a third variable, or the relationship may be coincidental.
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What are the types of scales of measurement used in psychological research?
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The scales of measurement include nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio, each providing different levels of information about the data.
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What is the significance of measurement error in research?
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Measurement error affects the reliability and validity of research findings. It represents the discrepancy between the observed score and the true score.
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How can a control group improve the validity of an experiment?
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A control group helps isolate the effect of the independent variable by providing a baseline for comparison, thus enhancing internal validity.
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What is the ‘third variable problem’?
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The ‘third variable problem’ refers to the possibility that a third, unmeasured variable influences both variables being studied, which can create misleading correlations.
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Define internal validity.
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Internal validity refers to the extent to which a study accurately establishes a causal relationship between the variables studied, free from the influence of confounding variables.
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What role does sampling play in correlational research?
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Sampling is crucial in correlational research as it ensures that the sample accurately represents the population, which affects the generalizability of the findings.
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What are outliers, and how do they affect correlations?
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Outliers are data points that deviate significantly from other observations. They can skew the results and distort the correlation coefficient, potentially leading to incorrect conclusions.
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What is the purpose of using questionnaires in correlational research?
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Questionnaires are used to gather data from a large number of respondents, allowing researchers to explore relationships between variables efficiently and effectively.
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Explain what a positive correlation indicates.
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A positive correlation indicates that as one variable increases, the other variable also increases. For example, higher levels of education are often associated with higher income.
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What is the difference between true experimental design and correlational research?
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True experimental design involves manipulating one variable to observe its effect on another while controlling for extraneous variables, whereas correlational research observes relationships without manipulation.
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How can correlational research inform future experimental studies?
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Correlational research can identify relationships and generate hypotheses that can be tested through experimental research, helping to establish causation.
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What is external validity?
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External validity refers to the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to and have relevance in settings outside the study itself.
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What is the significance of using a large sample size in correlational studies?
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A larger sample size increases the likelihood of obtaining a more representative sample, which enhances the reliability and validity of the research findings.
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Describe the importance of operationalization in research.
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Operationalization involves defining variables in measurable terms, which is essential for clarity in research, allowing constructs to be accurately assessed and compared.
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What can be inferred from a correlation coefficient of r = -0.75?
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An r value of -0.75 indicates a strong negative correlation, suggesting that as one variable increases, the other variable tends to decrease.
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What are the limitations of correlational research?
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Limitations include the inability to establish causation, potential for confounding variables, and the reliance on the accuracy of self-reported data.
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What is correlational research?
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Correlational research examines the relationship between two or more variables without manipulating them. It identifies whether and how strongly pairs of variables are related.
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