is sociology a sciene Flashcards
(38 cards)
1
Q
what do positivist say
A
- objective facts about social world in statistics. discovered directly by our senses - see
- facts not influenced by personal beliefs
- look for correlations to find causal relationships= relation b/w 2 phenomenon causing other to take place
- possible to uncover the laws of human behaviour i
- scientific, =study what you observe. I unscientific to study people’s emotions.
- possible to classify social world in objective way= possible to count observable social facts n get statistics
- laws of human behaviour can be found by collection of objective facts of social world in stats form
- use inductive approach = collect data -> observation -> pattern -> hypothesis ->theory -> tested against others
- subject matter of society similar to natural sciences ; humans react to external forces
human behaviour caused n predictable
2
Q
what does durkheim say
positivist
A
- social facts be considered =make people behave in ways
- human behaviour can be explained with xternal stimuli (things happen to us) than internal (mind
- society directed by collective beliefs, values n laws - by social facts
- used quantitative, scientific methods
- –used stats on suicide oto support claim that unobservable forces shaped human behaviour
- –essential to achieve right amount of integration n regulation
3
Q
what is durkheim study of sucidie
A
- wanted to show suicide not explained fully by psychologists
- personal reasons not account for suicide rate e.g no relation b/w insanity n suicide rate
- suicide available stats = social facts to find causes n make correlations n find patterns to reveal causual relationship
4.suicide rates higher in protestant countries than catholic,
jews - lower suicide rate than roman cath
married people more suicide rate, war reduce suicide - religion more important than education - jews had low suicide rate with high education level
4
Q
durkheim study of suicide - types of suicide & result
A
- egoistic suicide - from being insufficiently integrated into social groups n society they belonged
- –catholic religion integrated member more strongly into religious community
- –protestant church encouraged people to develop own interpretation of religion = less belong to community n integrated circj
- –unmarried n childless less integrated into family - anomic suicide = society not regulate individual enough = trad norms n values disrupted by social change = uncertainty in behaviour guidelines = anomie
- –suicide rise during economic depression n prosperity
- –rising salries n living standards = higher suicide rates —specialized division of labour = societies less integrated - altruistic suicide = well integrated into society - sacrificed own life out of sense of duty to others
- – Hindu widows kill self at husband funeral - fatalistic suicide = society restricted person too much- suicide of person with future blocked n passion oppressed. excess regulation
5
Q
positivist Reponses to durkheim
halbwachs
gibbs + martin
A
- Halbwachs = use more recent suicide statistics n new methods of statistical analysis
- —overestimated importance of religion in suicide rate - Gibbs + martin = agree suicide should be studied with scientific methods n stats data
- –he used concepts that cant be observed or measured = not follow positivist methods
- –fail to define ‘integration’ in measurable way
- –cant test theory that lack integration
6
Q
what does comte say about positivism
A
- ‘Age of Reason’ believed society could be studied w objective & rational eye. through formal observations.
- ‘positivist philosophy’ - good social science, like sociology, should use hypotheses to guide our study
3 three stages of progress in our understanding of world: - Theological stage – early human society (events caused by actions of gods)
- Metaphysical stage – focus shifts from the divine (such as God) to the human (abstract forces)
- Scientific stage – final stage science provides explanations - scientific laws
7
Q
comte positivism
A
- scientific study of scoiety should be confined to collecting info about phenomena to be objectively observed n classified
- should not be concerned with internal meanings, motives, feelings n emotions= only in consciousness- cant be observed or measured
- social phenomena like physical phenomena copying the methods of natural sciences.
8
Q
what does popper say
falsification
A
- reject inductive approach = whatever study will be informed by initial theory
- use deductive approach = theory -> hypothesis -> observation -> confirmation
- falsify it to prove it wrong
- never possible to verify theory - instead discover law of human behaviour
- always at some point, evidence/examples will not fit theory n prove theory untrue
e. g all swans white confirmed by observations but misleading if observer not been to AUS with black swans - scientific knowledge never be taken final unconvertible truth - always disproved
9
Q
popper falsification theory
A
- start with hypothesis or statement to deduce predictions aout future
e. g Newton’s Law of graity allow hypotheses made about movement of bodies of mass - used to make prediction against future events - dont matter how theory originates - doesnt have to come from prior observation or analysis
- not possible to produce laws thats true all time
- scientist need to constantly find evidence to disprove or falsify theories
10
Q
laboratory experiment -
A
- lab allow precise predictions - controlled env so researcher can manipulate variables = calculate effects n remove other factors
- e.g experiment of light on plant growths t
- –control group plants expose to light n experiment group more/less light than them = result observed, measured n quantified - allow to isolate variable than observed plants in wild
- allow replication- reproduce conditions for same results
Popper; allow precision n repeated testing prediction but not use laboratory experiments;
- unnatural situations - people under eye knowing= affect behaviour n ruin result validity
- impractical to do in lab, cant fit all community
11
Q
field experiments
A
-e.g rown n gay of fake job application by letter n phone from diff ethnic group - non white people less likely to lead to job interview
- e.g ask direction by actor - appearance of actor changed from businessman to labourer = public more helpful to businessman costume
- – cant control variables as closely - not same time or place
- – hawthorne effect = reduce knowledge of people knowing experiment = ethical risks with no consent
- less gov willing to surrender authroity to researcher to test theories n hypothesis
12
Q
interpretivist view
A
- scientific method useful only to natural phenomena where no quesion of consciousness or reflexivity
- scientific method cant be used to understand social action
- study of human society must go beyond empirical n objective evidence to include subjective views, opinions, emotions, values (unobservable)
require interpretation.
4.Iresearch cant establish social facts,
cant be understood by stats, figures, facts - sociology is interpretation of social action = only understood by interpret meanings n motives
- people actively construct own social reality - not imposed by external factors = dont react automatically but interpret meaning before responding .
e.g motorist see red light not stop in response - attach meaning to stimulus before acting = light could be decoration or brothel
7, explain human behaviour by understanding subjective states
13
Q
max weber - interpretivism
proestant ethic
-
A
- –>relationship b/w rise of Protestantism n development of western industrial capitalism
- –>ascetic calvinist Protestantism took over development of capitalism
- –>capitalism develop where religion influential
- –>calvinist protestantism believe elect = chosen to go heaven by god by how they behaved, carry duties
- –>encourage abstinence from pleasures n self discipline, worked hard in jobs to make money = success
- –>protestant attacked time waster, lazy, idle, gossip, sexual pleasures (sex for baby n after married)
- –>spirit of capitalism = set of ideas,ethics,values = way of life with ethics, duties, obligations n make money
- –>making money became religious n business ethic
- –> protestantism encouraged standardization & specializeddivison of labour
- —> limitts on consumption of wealth= increase more for saving n investments businesses
- –>religion dont expect them to test beliefs scientifically or expect religious beliefs to weigh on cost & benefits of joining religious group
- –> help build capitalist society
- –> formal rationality = best means to achieve given end in stats form
- –> hard for religious follower to keep faith = secularisation
14
Q
interpretivist
A
- – explain social action need understanding of meanings n motives of human behaviour = interpret meanings given to action
- – achieve by verstehen - imagine self in position/ empathetic understanding of behaviour
15
Q
max weber evaluation
A
- Somart = calvinism was against greed n money pursuit
- –> doctrine not meant to produce rational pursuit of profit = unintentional consequences - Calvinist countries like switz, hungary but not among first capitalist countries
- –> Marshall; scotland had capitalist mentality but held back by lack of labour & capital investment - question if religious beliefs of calvinist led to people being business people
- –>non calvinist devoted themselves as business= excluded from holding office n joining profession like jews - Marxist = early capitalism came before n determined Protestantism = protestantism was ideology capitalists used to legitimate position
- –> question if calvinism or capitalism came first
- –> Weber; pre capitalist money making ventures not rational organized for profits
16
Q
what is kuhn view - paradigms and scientific revolution
A
- –> see scientists as objective &neutral, & working together to refine scientific knowledge = evolving gradually, new evidence helps to refine &develop existing theories.
- –> argue evolution of scientific knowledge is limited by ‘paradigms’. = basic world-view give framework for thinking of world; assumptions of reality =limit questions scientists ask in research.
- –> scientists build their careers working within the dominant paradigm, & ignore evidence that dont fit with l framework
- –> those who ask questions outside of ‘dominant paradigm’ = marginalised, not taken seriously.
- –> ‘rogue scientists’ look world differently work in alternative research, with enough evidence builds up = contradicts existing paradigms, a ‘paradigm shift’ happens = i old paradigms are rejected, new dominant paradigm comes into force.
17
Q
kuhn view
A
- –> sociology not mature, mainstream science, = hasn’t found a unifying paradigm. not share aset of assumptions about world /how to do research
- –> radical science” challenges assumptions n possible to be paradigm shift, n radical science become new mainstream.
- –> series of ‘revolutions’ to paragim shift & new ‘paradigms’ to replace old ‘paradigms’’ accepted.
- –> science not be seen as characterised by consensus – many competing paradigms
- –> current paradigms not accepted forever n true
- –> Normal science = research based on past scientific achievements, as foundation further practice., gradual build up of evidence not fit accepted paradigm
e. g climate change = human activity impacting first treated sceptically but now be accepted (Sutton) like burning fossilfuels
- –> belief of continents moving / drift over earth surface seen ridiculous for many years = rejected= hard to investigate them = marginalised scientist
18
Q
evaluation of kuhn
A
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19
Q
positivistic evaluation
A
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20
Q
Realism views
sayers
A
- –> closed systems,; physics chemistry, - only limited variables interacting, controlled, possible to carry out laboratory experiments & precise predictions
- –> open system; meteorology operate = cannot control all variables. = unpredictability.
- —> Meteorology still scientific – models based on observation = predict w certainty when weather events happen, & models being refined.
- –> open systems sciences trying to find ‘underlying structures’ - not directly observed, like magnetic fields, interfere with weather patterns.
- –> can be scientific ; meteorology is scientific, but not scientific in the way physics or chemistry can be scientific:
- —> Quantitative sociology, e.g reveal hidden structures ( class structure), a& make predictions about what % people in lower class background will fail,
21
Q
symbolic interactionism
A
- –> dont reject attempt to establish casual relationship
- —> believe stats dont give insight into behaviour
- –> behaviour governed by internal processes - people interpret world around n give meaning
- —> people have self concept/image built up, reinforced, modified during interaction with others = have image of what sort person they are n tend to act with image
- —> response of others make it hard for them to sustain self concept = changing n behaviour will also change
- —> labelling as deviant or educational success/failures produce self fulfilling prophecy
22
Q
symbolic interactionist blumer
A
- –> sociologist conduct research only superficial familiarity with area of life
- –> result = impose definitions on social world with little regard for relevance to world
- –> not view social reality from actor’s view but force into predefined categories n concepts = small chance of getting true social reality
- —> industrialization cause replacement of extended families with nuclear
- —> meaning n interpretations to industrialization n family essential before relationship created b/w 2 factors
- —> sociologist must immerse self into area of life than fit data into predefined categories = learn actor’s view of social reality
23
Q
interpretive view oof suicide
douglas
A
—-> criticise use of states to study suicide
—> decision if sudden death is suicide made by coroner n influenced by other people like family n friends
—-> sysematic bias can enter in reaching decision
—-> e.g person integrated into social group - friends/family likely to deny suicide possibility to themselves n coroner = feel responsibility = cover up suicide
—-> see stats as negotiation between diff parties
distortion of stats systematic
—> bad to treat a;; suicide as same type of act w/o investigating meaning attached to act of victims
—> diff cultures suicide have diff meanings e.g businessman in modern industrial society suicide = business failed in contrast to elderly eskimo who kill himself for benefit of society
—-> needs to discover meanings, interview those victim’s close relations n analyse secondary sources from victim
—-> common suicide in western industrial society = transform soul to get to heaven /
transform of self = get others tothink of them differently /
suicide as achieving fellow feeling for sympathy
suicide to get revenge make them feel guity
24
Q
feminist approaches methods
A
- attack on malestream research = critique previous male dominated mainstream research
- distinctive feminist research methods = more conventional scientific methods men use that not good to understand social reality
- feminism reveal epistemology/theory/knowledge
25
feminist methodology
wallace & abbott
- --attack on malestream research = research for men, by men, about men
- ---> sociology concerned w research on men
- ---> research findings based on all male samples generalized to whole population
- ---> areas n issues of conern to women mostly overlooked/ seen as unimportant
- --> women included - distorted or seist way
- --> sex n gender almost never important variables
e.g smart = male crime n delinquency
-ignored women criminals- merton, cohen, ohlin
smale scientists being sexist 0 parsons, biology
26
femiinist method
| oakley
- -->feminist way of doing interviews thats better
- -->discover main features of masculine approach
- paradigm of proper interview = objective, detachment, science important = avoid being too involved, be passive n not answer questions
- --> women wanted to ask her questions about research & requests for info about childbirth/childcare or anxious about it = oakley answered them honestly as it was hard them n give them back
- --> wanted women to be collaborative n friends = develop relationship - intimate n non-hierarchal
- ---> oakley asked permission to record interview & use info
- ---> gave help with childcare or housework & talked of her own experiences of childbirth with women interested & gave offer advice
- ---> improved quality of research & get closer to subjective view of women studied
- ---> women influenced - making them reflect on experiences = reduce anxiety & reassured
27
post modernism view
| lyotard
- -->metanarratives of emancipation, self fulfilment & social progress= undermined by postmodernism
- -->postmodern era;
1. search for truth abandoned as sign/symbol denotative language games disfavoured
- -- knowledge fragments into multiple diff language games specific to certain areas of science or social life
- -- diversity today = people lose faith in search for 1 great truth
2. sign/symbol denotative language games replaced by technical language games - statements not judged if true but by if useful & efficient or not.
- -- ultimate ends of human activity to which things can be achieved
e. g university researchers ask what use something than if its true = research produce knowledge favourable
---> technology pm = miniaturization & commercialization of machines
computer tech = force of production
---> knowledge that cant be translated in to form usabe by computer = lost or disregarded
--- economic activity around info tech
---social life monitored n controlled my machines n control over knowledge = major source of power
---future wars about control of knowledge
- --> pm society based on production & ecchange of knowledge to be sold,
- --> lang games about if efficient & saleable than if they serve human purpose/goal
- --> offer tolerance & creative diversity, people not corrupted by metanarrative doctrinaire.
28
post modernism
---> scientific paradigm is meta-narrative that brings nothing& cannot help to improve it = more value than other perspective.
e,g society world fragmented , many perspectives on everything = truth become relative.
---> paradigm shift over time & discipline (science and sociology) does not matter, they are just meta-narratives.
---> science should not be allowed a monopoly of truth e.g aim to be scientific =suggesting being scientific is the best thing & should be strived for. but its 1 version of the truth
e,g now in a scientific risk society, aware of greater risks to our health from pollution and nuclear war =science . Problems like degrading environment and getting MRSA or other super drug resistant bugs in us were not concerns 100 years ago,
--->risks created in society are greater now because of science.
29
interpretivist view
- --> meanings n self concepts shape n influence behaviour; people attach meaning to world around n have motives to act
- --> reality is social reality is different to natural reality – we need to understand meanings. social action
- --> verstehen to translated as observational understanding + understand meaning of motives
- --> reject natural science method for social action study = natural science deal with matter & matter has no consciousness = behaviour is reaction to external stimuli but people have consciousness - interpet & experience world in meanings = construct own reality
- --> people dont react automatically to external stimuli
30
criticism of weber
---> treat all social forces n pressures like it can be explained to actions & purposes of isolated people
31
criticism of douglas
---> fail to recognize value of durkheim's work
---> contradicts himself; imply suicide stats cant be reliable- judgement if death is suicide
but also suggest causes of suicide can be found
32
phenomenologist view
| atkinson
- -->coroners have commonsense theory of suicide - if info of deceased fits theory= likely categorized death as suicide;
1. if suicide notes or threats left
2. mode of dying judged to indicate suicide - road deaths rarely suicide
3. location n circumstances of death judged e.g gassing if window doors blocked = suicide, deserted area
4. consider biography of deceased - mental state n social situation
---> coroners have explanation of causes of crime
n if info of background fit explanations = verdict likely
---> analyse features of deaths n biographies
---interpretation on event
33
criticism of phenomenology
| hindess
- --> if suicide stats critized as bein no more than interpretations of coroners then atkinson critizied being no more than interpretation of sociologists
- --> no way to check validity of how coroners reach decisions
34
criticism of postmodernism
| alvesson
- --> language constructs phenomena - experience reality is shaped by lang you use to describe it
- --> interviews & notes dont reflect underrlyingreality but create reality they claimto describe
- --> to improve interview by refine techniques, be sensitive to way relationship develop
- --> reflexive pragmatism = produce best data without provide objective picture of reality
- --> efforts to see subject from diff angle & avoid privileging favoured one
- --reflexive researcher not able to overcome problem with data = no basis for pragmatic acceptance of some data
35
critical social research
| harvey
- --> knowledge is process to understand social world- never ending = ever finished as world constantly changing
- -- knowledge an be seperate from values n see beneath surface
- -- society seems misleading = things taken for granted to find true values underlying them
- --> want to reveal oppressive structure - to be changed
1. abstract concepts n ideology like housework = examine how concepts relate to wider social relationships = see beneath surface of social reality
e. g housework is work relationship then tasks simply
- -- overcome dominant ideology that distort reality e.g patriarchal/racial beliefs = mask reality
e. g marxist - wage labour as free & fair exchange but hides material benefits of employer as owner of means of production
2. concepts n beliefs relate to society to totality = view phenomena interrelated n as a whole
--- societies have structures that constraint & limit people action & make actions possible
e,g wc cant set up own business but possible to make profits
--- examine historical context changes over time to understand in a time point = wc learn how economy & labour market changed
3. deconstruction of areas in life to find essence = important concept to unlock deconstructive process - find relationships embedded in structure
e. g essence of capitalism = commodity form & housework is work relationship
- --reconceptualization = familiar aspects of social life in unfamiliar ways find essences
- -- deconstruction; development & testing hypothesis & collect empirical data
e. g willis wc lads = rebellion at school prepare for alienation at jobs in future - contribute to maintaining their own oppression
4. praxis = practical reflective activity what changes the world, improve world
- -- interested if potential for oppessed groups to come together to change their situation
- -- groups understand situation = likely to resist, challenge structures oppressing them
36
criticism of critical social research
| hammersley
1. problems finding sources of oppression
- -- not clear how to distinguish oppressor from non oppressor as people can be both
- -- if oppressed researcher it be hard to do method
2. diff views on what group needs n interests
- -- diff views n dimensions of oppression = subjective judgements
3. assume theres single set of values everyone agree on
- --interest s of diff oppressed groups may clash
e. g religious minority oppressed due to beliefs but also patriarchal & opress women = unclear what to focus on
4. try to make their argument true by getting oppressed groups to agree or show results success to combat oppression
- -- group not able to evaluate truth of theories = suffer false consciousness
- -- cant assume correct theory will produce social changes to overcome oppression
37
phenomenology
| cicourel
- --> reject producing casual explanation of human behaviour= dont believe objectively measure & classify world
- --> make sense of world by meanings n classifications = make up social reality & no objective reality
- --> juvenile justice police offers = problem of classifying behaviour of juneiles into cateogries of; delinquent & non-delinquent
- --> not objective = based on stereotypes of typical delinquent held by officials
- ---> data on convictions for acts = social product based on assumption who created stats
---> stats products rflect meanings of those who created them
---> sociologist to understand meanings from which social reality is constructed
---> problem of classification is universal & not unique to certain data
all make decisions to classify by social processes
---> no hierarchy or superiority of diff systems of classification = pointless to use data upon interpretations to find relationships
---> stats to conclude that WC cause crimes acts not justified = figures only show how crie defined & classified then what actions carried out
38
realism
- --> argue that only understand conflict between workers n owners by understanding class structure or women experience with patriarchy
- --> physical science n social science both have aim of uncovering underlying strictures & processes to make things happen
