issues and debates Flashcards
(92 cards)
1
Q
gender bias - key terms (5)
A
gender bias universality alpha bias beta bias androcentrism
2
Q
universality
A
universality - any underlying characteristics of humans what are capable of being applied to all, despite differences in experiences/upbringing
3
Q
gender bias
A
gender bias is when psychological research doesn’t accurately represent the experience or behaviour of both genders
4
Q
alpha bias
A
alpha bias - psychological differences that suggest there are real and enduring differences between men and women.
This difference may enhance or undervalue members of either sex, usually females
5
Q
beta bias
A
beta bias - theories that ignore or minimise differences between the sexes
- females may not be included in research and assumed that both genders would have the same response
6
Q
androcentrism
A
androcentrism - male centred, ‘normal’ behaviour judged according to a male standard - meaning that female behaviour may be judged as ‘abnormal’ in comparison or being misunderstood
can be caused by beta bias
7
Q
an example of alpha bias
A
e.g Freud;s penis envy - induces negative assumptions of females (whilst sociobiological theory argues male sexuality is genetic and normal
8
Q
example of androcentrism
A
‘PMS’ - trivialises and labels female aggression as merely hormones/a disorder
masculine aggression seen as a reasonable response to environmental stimuli
9
Q
gender bias A03: misleading assumptions
A
P: Gender-biased research may create misleading assumptions about female behaviour, fail to challenge negative stereotypes and validate discriminatory practices.
E: Tavris (1993) refers to this in their quote ‘it becomes normal for women to feel abnormal’.
E: gender bias in research is not just a methodological problem but may have damaging consequences which affect the lives and prospects of real women, for example, the statistic that females are twice as likely to be diagnosed with depression.
L: As a result the external validity of gender bias is increased because it has implications for the real world.
10
Q
gender bias A03: sexism in research
A
P: A lack of women at senior research level means that female concerns may not be reflected in the research questions asked.
E: Male researchers are more likely to have their work published and studies which find evidence of gender differences are more likely to appear in journal
E: Also, laboratory experiments may further disadvantage women as they are placed in an uneven relationship with a (usually male) researcher who has the power to label them unreasonable, irrational and unable to complete tasks (Nicolson, 1995).
L: This means that psychology may be guilty of supporting a form of institutional sexism that creates bias in theory and research - internal validity of alpha bias is increased.
11
Q
gender bias A03: reflexivity
A
P: Many modern researchers are beginning to recognise the effect their own values and assumptions have on the nature of their work.
E: Rather than seeing such bias as a problem that may threaten the objective status of their work, they embrace it as a crucial and critical aspect of the research process in general.
E: For instance, in their study of the lack of women in executive positions in accountancy firms, Dambrin and Lambert (2008) include reflection on how their gender-related experiences influence their reading of events
L: Such reflexivity is an important development in psychology and may lead to greater awareness of the role of personal biases in shaping research in the future and consequently the internal validity of gender bias is increased.
12
Q
gender bias A03: points
A
- reflexivity
- sexism in the research process
- misleading assumptions
13
Q
cultural bias: key points (5)
A
cultural bias emic constructs etic constructs ethnocentrism cultural relativism
14
Q
cultural bias
A
refers to the tendency to ignore cultural differences and interpret all phenomena through the lens of one’s own culture
- often westernised, white-american males
15
Q
Ethnocentrism
A
Judging other cultures by the standards and values of one’s own culture. May lead to prejudice, or viewing behaviours that don’t conform to the Western standard as ‘abnormal’ e.g Ainsworth’s Strange Situation
16
Q
Cultural Relativism
A
The idea that norms and values, as well as ethics and moral standards, can only be meaningful and understood within specific social and cultural contexts.
17
Q
Etic approach
A
looks at behaviour from outside of a given culture and attempts to describe those behaviours that are universal (eg- Ainsworth).
18
Q
emic approach
A
functions from within/inside certain cultures and identifies behaviours specific to that culture
19
Q
emic approach
A
functions from within/inside certain cultures and identifies behaviours specific to that culture
20
Q
What did Berry say about etic and emic approaches? (2)
A
- Berry distinguished between etic and emic approaches in the study of human behaviour
- argues psychology has often been guilty of imposing an etic approach, arguing theories, models etc are universal when they actually came about through emic research within a single culture.
21
Q
A03 for cultural bias: limiting psychological knowledge
A
Cultural bias has infiltrated a lot of past psychological research, meaning our knowledge may be limited
Even more recent studies, e.g Schaffer and Emerson attachment studies
Counteract: Elkman - suggests that basic facial expressions for emotions (such as happiness or disgust) are the same all over the human and animal world.
22
Q
cultural bias A03: conducting research elsewhere
A
P: When conducting research in Western culture the participants familiarity with the general aims and objectives of scientific enquiry is assumed.
E: However, the same knowledge and ‘faith’ in scientific testing may not extend to cultures that do not have the same historical experience or research.
E: For this reason, demand characteristics may be exaggerated when working with members of the local population (Bond and Smith, 1996) and this may have an adverse affect on the validity of research.
L: Therefore, there is cultural bias in psychological research and therefore the internal validity is increased.
23
Q
cultural bias A03: challenging prejudice
A
P: one of the benefits of cross-cultural research is that it may challenge our typically individualist ways of thinking and viewing the world
E: challenging ‘scientific racism’ - promote greater sensitivity to individual difference and cultural relativism
- attachment studies
E +L: psychologists are more likely to draw conclusions that have higher validity if they include recognition of various cultures
–> expensive, many laws don’t require this research according to biological approaches
24
Q
cultural bias A03: points
A
- conducting research elsewhere
- challenging prejudice
- limiting psychological field
25
Free will
The notion that humans can make choices and are not determined by biological or external factors.
- basis of the humanistic approach
26
Determinism
The view that an individual’s behaviour is shaped or controlled by internal or external forces, rather than an individual’s will to do something.
27
Hard determinism
Implies that free will is not possible as our behaviour is always caused by internal or external events beyond our control.
- compatible with scientific psychological perspectives
28
Soft determinism
All events, including human behaviour, have causes, but behaviour can also be determined by our conscious choices in the absence of pressure.
- Although scientists investigate the forces acting upon us, this does not detract from the freedom we have to make rational conscious choices.
29
Biological determinism
The belief that behaviour is caused by biological influences (genetic, hormonal, evolutionary) that we cannot control.
- neurological and biological processes outside our conscious control e.g testosterone + aggression
30
Environmental determinism
The belief that behaviour is caused by features of the environment (such as systems of reward and punishment) that we cannot control.
- Skinner free will is an 'illusion' - we may think we act independently but we are shaped by our environment (parents, teachers etc)
31
Psychic determinism
The belief that behaviour is caused by unconscious conflicts that we cannot control.
- Freud: emphasis on unconscious drives, human behaviour being determined by internal conflicts from our childhood
32
5 types of determinism
```
Hard determinism
Soft determinism
Biological determinism
Environmental determinism
Psychic determinism
```
33
freewill vs determinism A03: aims of science
P: Determinism is consistent with the aims of science.
E: The experience of mental disorders such as schizophrenia, where sufferers experience a total loss of control over their thoughts and behaviour, casts doubt on the concept of free will.
E: Therefore, at least in terms of mental illness behaviour would appear to be determined.
L: Consequently, the internal validity of the concept of determinism is increased.
--> is this always true? people have very different experiences? if it was deterministic, would we have the ability to recover?
34
freewill vs determinism A03: legality
P: may implicate the legal systems
E: determinism may act as an 'excuse' for inexcusable behavior e.g aggression/domestic abuse
E: allows immoral behavior, and determinism is also inconsistent with the legal system in the fact that people are usually held morally accountable for their behaviour - suggests free will
L: psychology should advance the world, not impair, thus the external validity is decreased
35
freewill vs determinism A03: interactionism
P: An interactionist position may provide us with the best compromise in the free-will determinism debate.
E: Those approaches in psychology that have a cognitive element, such as SLT, tend to adopt a soft determinist position.
E: For instance, Bandura argued that although environmental factors in learning are key, we are free to choose who or what to attend to and when to perform certain behaviours.
L: Therefore, since an interactionist approach combines free will and determinism, the internal validity of both is increased.
--> does this expose that this approach is too reductionist and inapplicable to real-life?
36
freewill vs determinism A03: points
interactionism
legality
scientific aims
37
What is meant by the ‘nature-nurture debate’ in psychology? (2 marks)
2 marks for the possibility that behaviour is governed by nature (genes etc) and by nurture (eg environment, experiences etc) and reference to the debate being about the relative contribution of each of these influences.
38
nature vs nurture debate: nativists argument
Early nativists such as Descartes (1596-1650) argued that human characteristics are innate; the result of heredity (genetic transmission of mental and physical characteristics from one generation to another)
39
nature vs nurture debate: empiricist argument
empiricists including the philosopher Locke argued that the mind is a blank slate at birth upon which learning and experience writes on to as a result of the environment (a view which became an important feature of the behaviourist approach).
40
heritability coefficient
used to assess heredity - a numerical figure ranging from 0-1.0 which indicates the extent to which a characteristic has a genetic basis (with a value of 1 meaning entirely genetically determined)
41
what is the general figure for heritability in IQ?
| - what does this number indicate?
around 0.5 across multiple studies in varying populations
| = suggests that both genetics + environment are important factors in intelligence.
42
nature vs nurture debate: define 'environment'
Environment = Any influence of human behaviour that is non-genetic
- historical, social, cultural influences, or pre-natal experiences
43
who defined the different levels of the environment?
| what are they (3)?
Lerner (1986) identified different levels of the environment:
1- The mother’s physical and psychological state during pregnancy.
2- Generally through post-natal experiences such as the social conditions the child grows up in.
3- The cultural and historical context they are part of
44
nature vs nurture debate: the interactionist approach
The interactionist approach = The idea that nature and nurture are linked to such an extent that it does not make sense to separate the two, so researchers instead study how they interact and influence each other
45
nature vs nurture debate: give an example of where the 'interactionist approach' has been applied:
Belsky & Rovine:
- attachment patterns between an infant and its parents = result of both the child’s innate temperament which influences the way its parents respond to it, and their response will then affect the child’s behaviour
46
nature vs nurture debate: the diathesis-stress model
| - give an example of a piece of research
diathesis-stress model - biological/genetic vulnerabilities (the diathesis) only expressed when coupled with a biological or environmental ‘trigger’ (the stressor)
- Brunner Dutch family research: aggression due to MAOA gene variant (vulnerability), but also large proportions of the family were involved with aggressive crimes (trigger)
47
nature vs nurture debate: epigenetics (3)
- changes in our genetic activity without changing our genetic code
- happens throughout life and caused my environmental interactions/lifestyle - e.g smoking, diet leaves epigenetic marks on our DNA
- these marks tell our bodies which genes to ignore/use - may influence genetic codes of offspring
48
nature vs nurture debate: research to support epigenetics (3)
Dias & Ressler (2014)
- gave lab mice electrics shocks every time they were exposed to the smell of acetophenone
- fear reaction shown when scent presented - rat offspring also feared the smell before they had been exposed to smell/experienced shocks - as did their grandchildren
49
nature vs nurture debate: what does the idea of 'epigenetics' add to the debate? (3)
Epigenetics introduces a third element into the nature-nurture debate- the life experience of previous generations
50
As well as the 'interactionist approach' how do psychologists approach the nature-nurture debate? (2)
- so closely intertwined - makes little scientific sense to separate the two
- Psychologists question the relative contribution/ importance of each influence (genetic or environmental) is in impacting behaviour
51
nature vs nurture debate: A03 points (3 positive)
+ empiricist debate and gene therapy
+ supported by twin studies
+ supported by phobias
52
nature vs nurture debate a03: empiricist debate and gene therapy
P: Empiricists suggest that any behaviour can be changed by altering environmental conditions.
E: Behaviour shaping, a behaviourist concept, has had practical application in therapy. Desirable behaviours are selectively reinforced, and undesirable behaviours are punished or ignored.
E: In extreme terms, this may lead one to advocate a model of society that controls and manipulates its citizens using these techniques.
L: Therefore, the external validity of the ‘nurture’ side of the ‘nature-nurture’ debate is increased as this demonstrates the role of ‘nurture’ shaping behaviour.
--> Gene therapy - unethical + behaviour may be a consequence of the situation (in response to external pressures) rather than actual change in ‘nature’ or ‘nurture’ of the individual
53
nature vs nurture debate a03: twin studies
P: One strength of the ‘nature’ side of the debate is that it is supported by twin studies
E: In investigating aggression, Coccaro found that the concordance rates for physical aggressive behaviour in male Mz twins was 50% and 19% for Dz twins.
E: Hence, as Mz twins share 100% of their DNA , this data suggests genetics play a role in aggression, and therefore supports the idea of ‘nature’ influencing human behaviour.
L: Therefore, this increases the internal validity of the ‘nature’ side of the debate.
--> lack validity - fails to separate environmental and genetic factors if twins share same environment?
54
nature nurture debate a03: phobias
P: One strength of the ‘nurture’ side of the debate is that it is supported by significant research.
E: For example, Watson and Ryner’s ‘Little Albert’ study, played into te concepts of ‘classical conditioning’ in acquiring phobias. ‘Little Albert’ was given repeated electric shocks when exposed to a white rat. Despite not displaying fear before the study, after the shocks, Albert showed intense sings of fear when exposed to the white rat, or any white object at all.
E: This study actively demonstrates the role of learning through ‘classical conditioning’ in acquiring phobias. It highlights that humans acquire fears through association, rather than perhaps a biological predisposition.
L: Therefore, the internal validity of the ‘nurture’ side of the debate is increased.
--> data has been discredited due to being unethical, and despite being a lab study, lacks internal validity as it was conducted 100 years ago (1920s)
55
what is holism?
Holism = a theory that proposes it only makes sense to study a whole, inseparable system rather than its individual parts.
56
what is reductionism?
Reductionism = The belief that behaviour is best explained by breaking it down into smaller individual parts.
57
what are 'levels of explanation'
how explanations vary from those at a basis fundamental level (focusing on basic components) to those at a broader, more holistic level.
58
apply 'levels of explanation' to OCD (5 levels)
- socio-cultural context - behaviours which others regard as irrational
- psychological - experience of having these thoughts
- physical - sequence of movements
- physiological level - hypersensitivity in brain
- neurochemical level - underproduction of serotonin
The levels of explanation here break down OCD as a whole into further smaller, more reductionist aspects
59
levels of explanation: hierarchy of science (1 definition, 5 tiers)
hierarchy of science - a reductionist hierarchy ('macro'/general disciplines at the top, 'micro' at bottom):
- sociology (most holistic)
- psychology
- biology
- chemistry
- physics (most reductionist)
60
levels of explanation: hierarchy of science - what do some researchers suggest?
reductionist researchers view psychology as ultimately being replaced by explanations from the sciences lower down in the hierarchy (as our understanding of psychology increased)
61
what are the 2 types of reductionism?
biological reductionism
| environmental reductionism
62
what is biological reductionism? give an example of how it has helped the advancement of psychological understanding:
- Biological Reductionism = form of reductionism which explains psychological phenomena at a lower biological level (in terms of actions of genes, hormones etc).
- e.g explanations of serious mental disorders like OCD and schizophrenia at a biochemical level has been fundamental to our psychological understanding
63
what is environmental reductionism (2)? give an example where it has enhanced our psychological understanding
- Environmental Reductionism - explaining all behaviour in terms of stimulus-response links that have been learned through experience.
- analysis occurs at the physical level (the behaviourist approach does not concern itself with cognitive processes that occur at the psychological level).
- e.g behaviourist approach - breaking down behaviour into measurable stimulus-response links
64
holism vs reductionism debate: ao3 points for holism (1 positive, 1 negative)
+ Stanford prison exp - importance of studying as a whole
| - holding psychology back as a science
65
a03 for holism: importance of group contexts
P: There are aspects of social behaviour that only emerge within a group context and can't be understood at an individual level
E: For example, the effects of conformity to social roles of prisoners/guards in the Stanford Prison Experiment couldn't be understood by studying the participants as individuals. It was the groups interactions and behaviour that was more important.
E: This shows that holistic/same level explanations provide a more complete and global understanding of behaviour than reductionist approaches
L: Therefore, the internal validity of holism as a level of explanation in psychology is increased
--> completely valid?
66
a03 for holism: holding psychology back as a science
P: can't be scientifically tested - speculative and vague
E: e.g humanistic psychology, which takes a holistic approach to behaviour, tends to be criticised for its lack of scientific evidence, and is rather loose set of concepts.
E: important to consider many perspectives when studying behaviour, arguably the humanistic approach holds psychology back developing as a science due to its vagueness. Rogers argues that for something to be scientific, it must be ‘falsifiable’, yet many holistic ideas (which are often used to explain behaviour e.g self-actualisation) lack this, and therefore lack scientific credibility
L: This suggests that despite forming the basis of certain areas of psychological understanding, holism utterly lacks scientific credibility, and thus hold psychology back developing into a scientific discipline.
67
a03 for reductionism: scientific credibility
P: reductionist approach often forms the basis of scientific research - to create operationalised variables necessary to break target behaviours down into constituent parts
E: This makes it possible to conduct experiments/record observations using behavioural categories which are meaningful and reliable.
E: Also, the behaviourist approach was able to demonstrate how complex learning could be broken down into simple stimulus-response links within the lab.
L: This gives psychology greater credibility, placing it on equal terms with the natural sciences lower down in the reductionist hierarchy and consequently increases the internal validity of reductionism.
--> oversimplifies complex behaviour
68
a03 for reductionism: alternative explanation
Alternative explanation – interactionist, an example of this is the diathesis stress model – can be applied more broadly and has allowed the advancement in treating psychological disorders (combining drugs and therapy)
--> Arguably the two explanations allowed this new modern one to come out
69
Briefly outline the holism-reductionism debate (2 marks)
Holism and reductionism are two different lens through which psychologists attempt to explain human behaviour. Holism argues that to fully understand human behaviour, psychologists must consider the behaviour/the individual as a whole. An example of this would be the humanistic approach, which focuses on the importance of the whole individual being, when explaining behaviour. The reductionist approach argues to explain human behaviour, it must be broken down into small, individual parts. For example, biological reductionism breaks down human behaviour into simple biological parts e.g genes, hormones.
70
Using an example, explain what is meant by the nomothetic approach in psychology (3 marks)
- nomothetic approach attempts to study human behaviour through the development of general principles and universal laws.
- approach is closely aligned with scientific methods within psychology such as experiments - involve study of larger numbers to establish general laws
- Skinner and behaviourists studied responses of 100sof rats, cats, pigeons etc, in order to develop the laws of learning.
71
Using an example, explain what is meant by the idiographic approach in psychology (3 marks)
- idiographic approach to research focuses on individual cases to understand behaviour.
- People are studied as unique entities, each with their own subjective experiences, motivations and values.
- Humanistic psychology uses the idiographic perspective - Rogers and Maslow took a phenomenological approach to the study of human beings in documenting the conscious experience of the individual or ‘self’
72
Idiographic & Nomothetic Approaches: a03 points for idiographic approach (one positive, one negative)
+ allows a global perspective of the individual
| - narrow and restricted
73
Idiographic & Nomothetic Approaches: a03 points for nomothetic approach (one positive, one negative)
+ scientific
| - loses perspective on the richness of the person's life
74
a03 for idiographic approach: positive
P: The idiographic approach, with detailed qualitative methods, provides a complete global account of an individual.
E: This may complement the nomothetic approach by shedding further light on general laws or by challenging such laws.
E: A single case may generate hypotheses for further study (e.g HM – provoked research into types of LTM), findings may reveal important insights about normal functioning which may contribute to our overall understanding
L: Therefore, the internal validity of the idiographic approach in psychology is increased
75
a03 for idiographic approach: negative
P: Idiographic research is narrow and restricted
E: One criticism of Freud is that many of his key concepts, like the Oedipus complex, were largely developed from the detailed study of a single case (Little Hans). Meaningful generalisations cannot be made without further examples, as there is no adequate baseline with which to compare behaviour.
E: methods associated with the idiographic approach (e.g case studies) tend to like scientific credibility, drawing conclusions on the subjective interpretation of the researcher, and open to bias.
L: Therefore, the internal validity of the idiographic approach is decreased.
76
a03 for nomothetic approach: positive
P: The processes involved in nomothetic research tend to be more scientific
E: Testing under standardised conditions, using data sets that provide group averages, statistical analysis e.g in IQ testing
E: Such processes have enabled psychologists to establish norms of ‘typical’ behaviour such as the average IQ of 100, giving psychology greater scientific credibility.
L: Therefore, the internal validity of the nomothetic approach is increased.
77
a03 for nomothetic approach: negative
P: The fixation of the nomothetic approach on general laws, prediction and control has been accused of losing the whole person in psychology.
E: Knowing that there is a 1% lifetime risk of developing schizophrenia tells us little about what life is like for someone suffering with the disorder.
E: Similarly, in lab studies involving tests of memory, participants are treated as a series of scores rather than individual people and their subjective experience of the situation is ignored.
L: Therefore, in its search for generalities, the richness of the human experience is disregarded. Hence, decreasing the internal and external validity of the nomothetic approach.
78
A prison psychologist used an idiographic approach to study offending. He asked two offenders to record their thoughts about their childhood and their offending behaviour in a journal over a period of four weeks.
Qualitative analysis of the journals showed that the offenders often thought about sad childhood events and believed that their childhood experiences had influenced their offending.
Explain how the researcher might develop the above investigation through taking a nomothetic approach. (6)
- nomo - larger sample
- sample representative of a larger pop - random sampling of inmates
- analysis use quantitative methods - statistical testing/making generalisable laws - questionnaires
- could compare the two idio (in-depth, cases), nomo (set gen laws, scientific etc)
79
what are ethical implications? when do they occur?
- impact of psychological research may have in terms of participants/other people’s rights. Including a societal level, influencing public policy and the way groups of people are regarded
- Ethical issues may occur if there is a conflict between psychological findings and preserving the rights of participants – ethical guidelines protect those who are involved in research
80
what is social sensitivity? (2)
- studies in which there are potential consequences/implications, either directly for the ppt in the research or for the class of individuals represented in the research e.g role of the mother
- ‘Taboo’ subjects (race, sexuality) should not be avoided by psychologists, instead have a responsibility to carry it out (Aronson)
81
who identified the concerns researchers should be mindful about when conducting socially sensitive research?
Sieber and Stanley
82
What did Siber and Stanley define as the 3 concerns researchers should be mindful of when conducting socially sensitive research?
- implications
- uses/public policy
- validity of research
83
Sieber and Stanley: implications
o Implications – wider effects of research, some studies may give scientific credibility to prejudice and discrimination e.g studies examining the racial basis of intelligence
84
Sieber and Stanley: uses/public policy
o Uses/Public Policy – what is the research likely to be used for? What would happen if the research were used for the wrong purposes? Findings may be used by the gov/politically to manipulate public policy (e.g Milgram – blindly following instructions)
85
Sieber and Stanley: validity of research
o Validity of the research – some findings presented as objective in the past have turned out to be suspicious. Modern researchers – should be upfront about biases/preconceptions which may influence their work/publications.
86
Outline one ethical implication of psychological research (3 marks)
One ethical implication of psychological research is that studies may be seen to give scientific credibility to prejudice and discrimination, such as studies investigating the racial basis of intelligence. This may lead to people being treated unfavourable and not having the same access to education as others as a result.
87
Explain why it is sometimes necessary to deceive participants in social influence research (2 marks)
For example, deception is necessary because if participants knew the aim, they might change their behaviour (1 mark). Second mark for elaboration e.g. this might affect validity.
88
Describe one way in which deception has been dealt with in social influence research (2 marks)
- Describe debriefing
| - Example – Asch (post-interviews)
89
ethical implications: a03 points
+ play a valuable role in society
- abused by societal shaping
+ exposes morally wrong research
90
ethical implications a03: preventing ethically wrong research
Point – exposes morally wrong research and prevents it in the future – e.g Watson and Rayner – increases the internal validity and the importance of considering ethical issues in psychology
Worth it for the advancement of psychological research?
91
ethical implications a03: promoting greater sensitivity and understanding
P: Scarr argues that studies of underrepresented groups/issues may promote a greater sensitivity and understanding.
E: This can help reduce prejudice and encourage acceptance.
E: Socially sensitive research has benefited society. For example, research into the unreliability of EWT has reduced the risk of miscarriages of justice within the legal system.
L: Therefore, this suggest that sensitive research plays a valuable role in society, and increases its external validity.
92
ethical implications a03: prejudice against societal groups
P: In the past ethical implications have been abused or disregarded to promote prejudice against groups
E: 1920-30s America, legislation promoted for the compulsory sterilisation of many citizens on the grounds that they were ‘feeble-minded’ (weak). This included people deemed to be of low intelligence, or mentally ill
E: This was supported by many sections of the scientific and psychological community/research at the time, agreeing that such feeble-minded people were an ‘unfit’ breed.
L: Socially sensitive research has been used to justify discriminatory practices and shape social perception, decreasing the internal validity of such research
--> BPS code of conduct
