Issues and Debates Flashcards
(112 cards)
1
Q
What is gender bias
A
- differential treatment and/or representation of males and females
- based on stereotypes and not on real differences
2
Q
What are the types of gender bias
A
- alpha bias
- beta bias
3
Q
What is alpha bias
A
- theories or studies that overestimate or exaggerate the differences between males and females
4
Q
What is beta bias
A
- theories or studies that ignore/minimise/underestimate sex differences
- often assume findings from studies using males can apply equally to females
5
Q
What is androcentrism
A
- possible consequence of beta bias
- researched being centred on males
- women’s behaviour has been misunderstood or pathologists
6
Q
What is universality
A
- conclusions drawn from research can be applied to everyone, anywhere, regardless of time, culture, or gender
- findings are objective and not influenced by their own values
7
Q
What is an example of alpha bias
A
- sociobiological theory of relationship formation
- it is in a males’ interest to impregnate as many women as possible to pass genes but women should focus on survival of their few children
- sexual promiscuity in males is genetically determined and women engaging in same behaviour are going against nature so are abnormal
8
Q
What is an example of beta bias
A
- fight or flight response
- early research focused on male animals and was assumed there would be a universal response to a threatening situation
- recent research from Taylor et al. (2000) suggests biology evolved to inhibit fight or flight in women who have a tendency to tend and befriend
9
Q
What is an example of androcentrism
A
- the American Psychological Association published a list of the 100 most influential psychologists of the 20th century
- list included only 6 women
- suggests psychology has traditionally been a subject produced by men, for men, and about men
10
Q
What are positive discussion points for gender bias
A
- institutional sexism
- societal opportunities
- essentialist perspective
11
Q
How is institutional sexism an example of a positive discussion point for gender bias
A
- male researchers within psychology are more likely to have researcher published than female researchers
- research which finds gender differences more likely to be published than research showing no differences
- psychology as a result is guilty of supporting a form of institutional sexism
12
Q
How is societal opportunities an example of a positive discussion point for gender bias
A
- gender biased research provides scientific justification for denying women opportunities within society
- in 1930s, scientific research found intellectual activity shrivel women’s ovaries, reducing chances of conceiving
- prevented them from attending university
13
Q
How is the essentialist perspective an example of a positive discussion point for gender bias
A
- many gender difference exported over years are based on essentialist perspective
- suggests gender differences are fixed and inevitable and determined by nature
- this is not necessary the case
- e.g. in societies where men and women go out to work and share child care and domestic chores, psychological differences are less
14
Q
What are negative discussion points for gender bias
A
- Dambrin and Lambert (2008)
- Worell (1992)
15
Q
How is Dambrin and Lambert (2008) an example of a negative discussion point for gender bias
A
- many modern researcher began to recognise effect that their own values and assumptions have on their work
- Dambrin and Lambert (2008) included reflection of how their own gender relegated experienced affected their reading of events when they investigated reason for lack of women in accountancy firms
16
Q
How is Worell (1992) an example of a negative discussion point for gender bias
A
- put forward number of criteria which should be adhered to to avoid gender bias in research
- women should be studies within meaningful life contexts
- women should genuinely participate in psychological research
- diversity within groups of women should be examined
- more collaborative research collecting qualitative data
17
Q
What is culture bias
A
- tendency to judge people in terms of one’s own cultural assumptions
- if norm for behaviour is judge from standpoint of one culture then any cultural differences will be seen as abnormal or inferior
18
Q
How can researchers reduce culture bias
A
- should not attempt to extrapolate findings or theories to cultures that are not represented in sample or assume there are universal norms across cultures
- should use native researchers to culture being investigated, carry out cross-cultural researcher, and be sensitive to cultural norms when designing research
19
Q
What is ethnocentrism
A
- emphasising important of behaviour of one’s own culture
- shown through behaviours not conforming to model are deficient, unsophisticated or underdeveloped
20
Q
What is an example of ethnocentrism
A
- Ainsworth’s Strange Situation
- assumed securely attached child shows separation protest and would be insecurely attached if not
- means German mothers were seen as cold and rejecting as their babies did not show distress
- could be interpreted as German mothers encouraging independence
21
Q
What is cultural relativism
A
- idea that a behaviour can only be properly understood in context of norms and values of culture in which it occurs
22
Q
What are positive discussion points for cultural bias
A
- Tokano and Osaka (1999)
- Cochrane and Sashidharan (1995)
- brain fog
23
Q
How is Tokano and Osaka (1999) an example of a positive discussion point for culture bias
A
- psychologically has previously differentiated cultures into individualistic and collectivist
- critics argued simple distinction is unhelpful and inaccurate
- Tokano and Osaka (1999) found 14 of 15 studies comparison US and Japan had no evidence of traditional distinction between individualistic and collectivist cultures
24
Q
How is Cochrane and Sashidharan (1995) an example of a positive discussion point for culture bias
A
- found African-Caribbean immigrants are seven times more likely to be diagnosed with mental illness
- led to questioning validity of DSM and ICD for diagnosing individuals born outside culture they were developed in
25
How is brain fog an example of a positive discussion point for culture bias
- mental illnesses in some cultures that do no exist in others
- brain fog used in West Africa to describe a person who is experiencing difficulty concentrating and thinking
- in China, a man who believes his penis is retracting into his body is diagnosed with koro
26
What are examples of negative discussion points for culture bias
- Ekman (1989) / interactional synchrony
- cross-cultural research
27
How is Ekman (1989) / interactional synchrony an example of a negative discussion point for culture bias
- evidence that some human behaviours are universal
- e.g. 4 basic facial expressions for emotions being same in all cultures, including animal kingdom (Ekman, 1989)
- also Interactional synchrony between infant and caregiver has been observed in many cultures
28
How is cross culture research an example of a negative discussion point for culture bias
- is one way to prevent cultural bias in psychology
- shows that knowledge and concepts we take for granted are not shared by others around the world
- not only counters charge of scientific racism that has been made against theories in past, but means conclusions psychologists draw are likely to have more validity
29
What is free will
- suggests as human beings we are essentially self determining and able to choose our thoughts and actions
- humanistic approach considers people to have free will
30
What it determinism
- idea that our traits and behaviours are outside of our control
- can be due to factors either internal or external
- no control over factors
31
What are the types of determinism
- hard determinism
- soft determinism
32
What is hard determinism
- fatalism
- all human behaviour has a cause and it should be possible to identify and describe these causes
- such an idea is computable with the aims of science (to uncover causal laws that govern people’s thoughts and actions
- assumes everything we think and feel and do is dictated by forces we cannot control and might not even be aware of
33
What is soft determinism
- proposed by philosopher William James (1890)
- important feature of the cognitive approach
- although all human action has a cause, people have conscious mental control over the way they behave
34
What are the types of hard determinism
- biological determinism
- environmental determinism
- psychic determinism
35
What is biological determinism
- biological approach argues all traits and behaviours are governed by internal biological factors
- e.g. genes, neurochemistry, brain suture
- many physiological and neurological brain processes are not under conscious control such
- e.g. autonomic nervous system during periods of stress and anxiety
- lots of behaviours and characteristics are thought to have genetic basis
- research has demonstrated effect of hormones (testosterone) in aggressive behaviour
36
What is environmental determinism
- idea that traits and behaviours are governed by external forces
- e.g. experiences, upbringing, learning, schools, parents, peers
- behavioural approach holds that experience of choice is merely the sum total of reinforcement contingencies that have acted upon us throughout our lives
- we may think we act independently, but our behaviour has been shared by environmental events and agents of socialisation
37
What is psychic determinism
- idea that traits and behaviours are governed by unconscious instincts and drives
- psychodynamic approach sees human behaviour as determined and directed by unconscious conflicts, repressed in childhood
- no such things as an accident according to Freud
- even something as seemingly random as an innocuous slip of the tongue can be explained as being caused by unconscious
38
What is the scientific emphasis on causal explanations
- science is heavily deterministic in its search for causal relationships as it seeks to discover whether the IV (cause) leads to changes in the DV (effect)
- if all variables are controlled except for IV, it means changes in DV must be caused by manipulation of IV
- having a control group enables researchers to determine cause and effect
- goal is to predict and control human behaviour
39
What are the evaluation points for determinism
- Chun Siong Soon et al. (2008)
- predicting behaviour
- psychotherapeutics
- face validity
- locus of control (Roberts et al., 2000)
40
How is Chun Siong Soon et al. (2008) an example of an evaluation point for determinism
- positive
- demonstrated that the brain activity that determines simple choices occurs before we are even aware we made a choice
- particiapnts asked to decide whether to push a button with their left or right hand
- brain imaging revealed that they made their decision up to 10 seconds before reporting that they were consciously aware of making a decision
41
How is predicting behaviour an example of an evaluation point for determinism
- positive
- determinism is fundamental to the scientific focus on investigating causes of behaviour and being able to predict behaviour
42
How are psychotherapeutics an example of an evaluation point for determinism
- prediction and control of human behaviour has led to development of treatments, therapies and behaviour interventions that have benefited many
- e.g. psychotherapeutic drug treatment in managing schizophrenia
- disorders like schizophrenia cast doubt on concept of free will as no one would choose to have schizophrenia
43
How is face validity an example of an evaluation point for determinism
- idea of free will has more face validity than determinism
- everyday experiences gives people the impression that they are constantly exercising free will through choices they make on any given day
44
How is locus of control (Roberts et al., 2000) an example of an evaluation point for determinism
- people with internal locus of control are more mentally healthy
- Roberts et al. (2000) demonstrated that adolescents who had strong belief that their lives were determined by events outside of their control were at higher risk of developing depression
- thinking we have free will has a positive impact on our mind and behaviour
45
What is the nature vs nurture debate
- possible that behaviour is determined by nature and nurture
- debate is about relative contribution of each of these influences in determining an individual’s behaviour
46
What is the nature side of the nature vs nurture debate
- rooted in the nativist theory
- knowledge and abilities are innate
- evolutionarily explanations
47
What approach supports the nature debate
- biological approach
48
How does the biological approach support the nature debate
- offers generic explanations for behaviour
- concordance rate for schizophrenia in MZ twins is 40% but only 7% in DZ (Jospeh, 2004)
- closer concordance rate for those with same genes shows nature is a major cause of mental disorders
49
What are evolutionary explanations and how do they support the nature debate
- based on principle that a characteristic that promotes survival and reproduction will be naturally selected as its more likely to be passed on
- Bowlby (1969) proposed attached is adaptive as it means infant will be more likely to be protected and survive
- attachment also promotes close relationships fostering successful reproduction
50
What is the nurture side of the nature vs nurture debate
- rooted in empiricist theory
- knowledge derives from learning
- environmental influences are acquired through interactions with the environment
- includes physical and social world
- experiences
- pre-natal environmental influences are part of nurture (mother smoking during pregnancy)
51
What approach supports the nurture debate
- behavioural approach
52
How does the behavioural approach support the nurture debate
- assumes all behaviour can be explained in terms of experience
- claims that babies attach to mothers as they associate them with pleasure from food (classical conditioning)
- SLT is less extreme than traditional behaviour ms
- studies show behaviour is learnt through observing behaviour of others (Bandura, 1963)
- studies also acknowledge urge to behave is biological
53
What is a theory supporting nurture
- double blind theory of schizophrenia
54
How does the double blind theory of schizophrenia support nurture
- Bareson et al. (1956)
- suggests schizophrenia develops in children who frequently receive contradictory messages from parents
- mixed messages prevent child developing an internally consistent construction of reality
55
What are strengths of the nature nurture debate
- interactionist approach
- Diathesis Stress Model
- epigenetics
- Magure et al. (2000
56
How is the interactionist approach an example of a strength for the nature nurture debate
- suggests nature and nurture are closely intertwined
- makes little sense to separate them
- general heritability figure in IQ tests is round 0.5
- means both genetics and environment are important factors in determining an individual’s intelligence
57
How is the Diasthesis Stress Model an example of a strength for the nature nurture debate
- models of mental illness which emphasis the interaction of nature and nurture in causing mental illness
- means a psychopathology us caused by genetic vulnerability which is only expressed when there is an environmental trigger
- Tienari et al. (2004) found in group of Finnish adoptees, most likely to get schizophrenia had biological relatives with disorder and relationship with adopted family was dysfunctional
58
How are epigenetics an example of a strength for the nature nurture debate
- refers to a change in our genetic activity without changing our genetic code
- process that happens throughout life
- caused by interaction with environment
- aspects of lifestyle leave epigenetic markers on DNA
- marks tell bodies which genes to ignore and which to use
- can be passed on
- introduces a third element of the debate, life experiences of previous generation
59
Suggest one way in which psychologists may address the problem of beta bias in their research
- include both genders in research samples
60
How many researchers reduce cultural bias in their research
- do not generalise findings from one culture to another
- emic approach
61
What is the emic approach
- considers behaviour from inside the culture
62
What is the etic approach
- looks at behaviour from outside of the culture
63
What is reductionism
- process of breaking a complex phenomenon down into consistent elements
- considers process to be desirable because complex phenomena are best understood in terms of a simple explanation
64
What are levels of explanation
- suggests all behaviours can be considered at various different levels of explanation
- vary from most reductionist to more holistic
- lowest focus on physiological factors
- highest focus on sociocultural factors
- behaviour, cognitive and social explanations between
65
What are the different levels of explanation
- highest level: cultural and social explanations of behaviour
- middle level: psychological (behavioural) explanations of behaviour
- lowest level: biological explanations of behaviour
66
What are the different types of reductionism
- environmental reductionism
- biological reductionism
67
What is environmental reductionism
- argues behaviour can be reduced to a simple relationship between behaviour and events
- e.g. complex emotion of attachment is reduced to a set of probabilities; the mother is likely to provide food which is reinforcing hence she is rewarding individual and so becomes a loved one
68
What is biological reductionism
- reduces human behaviour to the level of the action of neurones, NTs, hormones and so on
- e.g. suggested that schizophrenia is caused by excessive activity of the NT dopamine because drugs that block this NT reduce schizophrenic symptoms
69
What is holism
- focuses on systems as a whole rather than on the consistent parts
- suggests we cannot predict how the whole system will behave just from knowledge of the individual components
70
What are approaches that support holism
- humanistic approach
- cognitive approach
71
How does the humanistic approach support holism
- believes individual reacts as an organised whole, rather than set of stimulus response links
- what matters is a person’s sense of a unified identity and thus a lack of identity or sense of “wholeness” leads to a mental disorder
72
How does the cognitive approach support holism
- recognises importance of understanding an entire system
- e.g. memory is a complex system which has been understood in terms fo connected networks
- each network is linked to many other neurons
- these links develop through experience
- with each new experience, the links are strengthened or weakened
- network as a whole behaves differently than individual parts
73
What does an interactionist approach in reductionism argue
- several levels of explanation are necessary to explain a particular behaviour, ranging from lower to higher levels
- interactionism is subtly different from holism as it considers how different levels of explanation interact
- holism however is concerned with understanding the whole experience rather than individual explanations
74
What are examples of strengths of reductionism
- cause and effect
- scientific
- practical applications
75
How is cause and effect an example of a strength for reductionism
- scientists are drawn to reductionist explanations as a method of research
- most experiment psychology is based on assumptions that human behaviour can be studied effectively through simple experiments whereas complex behaviour is reduced to isolate variables
- controlled environment => cause and effect
- not possible if all factors were studied at once
76
How is scientific an example of a strength for reductionism
- biological and environmental reductions both break complex behaviours into small constituent parts
- means they can be scientifically tested and over time explanations of behaviour based on scientific evidence will emerge
77
How are practical applications an example of a strength for reductionism
- biological reductionism has led to development of biological therapies and drugs
- e.g. SSRIs more effective than placebos at treating OCD and reducing symptoms for up to 3 months after treatment
- use of SSRIs in patients with OCD helped reduce anxiety associated with OCD providing relief for patients
78
What are examples of weaknesses of reductionism
- errors
- animal testing
- overlooked behaviour (Wolpe, 1973)
79
How are errors an example of a weakness for reductionism
- biological reduction can lead to errors of understanding
- simplistic and ignores complex interaction of many factors
- e.g. treating ADHD with drugs in the belief condition consists of only neurochemical imbalances mistakes symptoms for true cause
- Ritalin may reduce symptoms but varied factors giving rising to ADHD have not been addressed
80
How is animal testing an example of a weakness for reductionism
- researching supporting environmental reductionism used animals for testing
- critics refer to social context in which humans are embedded in and hard to measure factors such as cognition, emotion, and intentionality
81
How is overlooked behaviour (Wolpe, 1973) an example of a weakness for reductionism
- environmental reductionism means true meaning of behaviour is overlooked
- Wolpe (1973) treated women with phobia of insects with SD but found no improvement
- turned out her husband, who she did not get on with, had an insect nickname
- her phobia was not the result of classical conditioning but an expression of her marital difficulties
82
What is the idiographic approach
- involves the study of individuals and the unique insights each provides
- qualitative, focusing on studying unique individuals in depth rather than gaining numerical data from many to determine average characteristics
- focus is on quality rather than quantity
- employs qualitative methods such as instructed interviews and case studies
83
What approaches can be seen as idiographic
- psychodynamic
- humanistic
84
How is the psychodynamic approach idiographic
- Freud used case studies of patients to understand human behaviour
- e.g. Little Hands
- consisted of 150 pages of verbatim quotes and Freud’s interpretations of these quotes and events
- did not make generalisations based on case studies but still idiographic as they drawn from information gathered from unique individuals
85
How is the humanistic approach idiographic
- humanistic psychologists concerned with studying the whole person and seeing world from their perspective
- what matters is the person’s subjective experience and not what someone else might observe of their behaviour
86
What is the nomothetic approach
- involves studying large representative sample to collect data to support a testable hypothesis
- seeks to formulate general laws of behaviour that apply to everyone
- favours quantitative research methods and data
87
What approaches are nomothetic
- biological
- behaviourist
- cognitive
88
How is the biological approach nomothetic
- seeks to portray basic principles of how the body and brain work
- have made mistake of only studying men and assuming their findings can be generalised to women
- e.g. fight or flight response
89
How is the behaviourist approach nomothetic
- produces general laws of human behaviour
- may not have involved thousands of human participants but were seeking one set of rules for all human and non human animals
90
How is the cognitive approach nomothetic
- aims to develop general laws of behaviour applying to all people
- uses case studies, HM and KF
- requires because to understand working of a normal mind, it is often necessary to look at abnormal cases
91
What are examples of strengths for the idiographic approach, which may also be considered as weaknesses for the nomothetic approach
- in depth information (Allport, 1961)
- scientific
92
How is in-depth information an example of a strength for the idiographic approach
- provides rich and in-depth information about single causes
- nomothetic approach unable to do so
- Allport (1961) maintained that it is only by knowing a person as an individual that we can predict what they will do in any given situation
93
How is being scientific an example of a strength for the idiographic approach
- elements such as case studies and thematic analysis are scientific and evidence based as well as seeking to be objective
- qualitative research uses reflexivity to identify influence of bias
- reflexivity refers to process where researcher reflects or thinks critically during research process about factors affecting behaviour of participants and researcher
94
What are examples of weaknesses for the idiographic approach, which may also be considered as strengths for the nomothetic approach
- positive psychology
- general predictions
- time consuming and expensive
95
How is positive psychology an example of a weakness for the idiographic approach
- not very scientific
- main reason for growth of positive psychology
- many considered humanistic to not be sufficiently evidence based and therefore meaningless
- positive psychology aims to be more evidence based
96
How are general predictions an example of a weakness for the idiographic approach
- idiographic approach may be scientific but its inability to produce general predictions about behaviour is limiting as they can be useful
- e.g. too time consuming to produce personal therapies for everyone with a mental illness
97
How is being time consuming and expensive an example of a weakness for the idiographic approach
- idiographic more time consuming and expensive than nomothetic
- both collect large data but idiographic collects large amount from one person while nomothetic collects small amount from many people
- latter quicker as once a test has been designed, it can be generated and processed quickly
98
Who came up with the term socially sensitive research
- Sieber and Stanley (1998)
99
What is socially sensitive research
- research where the topic area or group being studied can have implications for society or certain groups within society
- could lead to change in or justification for the way in which these groups are treated or perceived
100
What did Sieber and Stanley (1998) argue
- scientists have a responsibility for the way in which their research will be used in the future
101
What did Sieber and Stanley identify
- four aspects in the scientific research process that raise ethical implications in socially sensitive research
102
What were the four aspects identified by Sieber and Stanley (1998)
- the research question
- the methodology used
- the institutional context
- interpretation and application of findings
103
What did Sieber and Stanley say about the research question
- the researcher must consider their research question carefully
- asking questions such as “are their racial differences in intelligence” or “is intelligence inherited” may be damaging to members of a particular group
104
What did Sieber and Stanley say about the methodology used
- the researcher needs to consider the treatment of the participant’s and their right to confidentiality and anonymity
- e.g. if someone admits to having committed a crime, or having unprotected sex even though they are HIV positive, should the researcher maintain their confidentiality
105
What did Sieber and Stanley say about the institutional context
- researcher should be mindful of how the data is going to be used and consider who is funding the research
- if being funded by a private institution or organisation, why are they funding the research and how do they intend to use the findings?
106
What did Sieber and Stanley say about interpretations and applications of findings
- the researcher needs to consider how their findings might be interpreted and applied to the real world
- could their results be used to inform government policy?
107
What are examples of positive evaluation points for socially sensitive research
- misrepresentation
- ethical issues
- responsibility
- unimportant issues
108
How is misrepresentation an example of a strength in socially sensitive research
- psychologists should conduct socially sensitive research as many groups in society has suffered consequences of being excluded or being misrepresented
- our understanding of human behaviour has been lessened by minus interpretations and failure to represent certain groups within research
- has ethical implications because these people miss out on benefits of psychological research
109
How are ethical issues an example of a strength in socially sensitive research
- psychologists deal with ethical issues in socially sensitive research by developing ethical guidelines
- however, guidelines protect immediate needs of participants but not all ways in which research may inflict harm on group of people
- e.g. guidelines do not ask psychologists to consider how their research may be used by others
110
How is responsibility an example of a strength in socially sensitive research
- to reduce likelihood data is mishandled, psychologists should be energetic in taking responsibility for what happens to their findings
- should be aware that results of research may lead to abuse or discrimination
111
How are unimportant issues an example of a strength in socially sensitive research
- suggested that specially sensitive research should be avoided all together to prevent negative consequences for certain groups of people
- however, this would leave psychologists with only unimportant issues to examine
- Sieber and Stanley’s view is that avoiding controversial topics is also avoiding responsibility
- therefore psychologist shave a duty to conduct research
112
What are examples of weaknesses of socially sensitive research and how are they examples
- there are always some social consequences from psychological research
- but there is always the increased potential for a more indirect impact on the group that participants represents
- not sufficient to simply safeguard the interests of individual participants
