Issues and debates Flashcards
Alpha bias
Alpha bias is when there is a misrepresentation of behaviour as theorists overestimate differences
Beta bias
Beta bias is when there is a misrepresentation of behaviour as theorists underestimate differences, often resulting in a misrepresentation of the findings of a study
Androcentrism
Androcentrism is when psychological theories assume a male point of view
An example of alpha bias linked to cognitive styles
An example of alpha bias in research is the study by Baron-Cohen et al. (2005), which suggested that men and women have different cognitive styles, with men being sympathisers and women being empathisers.
4 ways
How can psychologists minimise gender bias?
Psychology can move forward as we become more aware of gender bias. By being more aware, this issue can be minimised in a number of ways.
One way to minimise gender bias in psychological research is by including both genders in their research. This can ensure that both genders are considered within the context of the research.
However, if the sample is only represented by one gender, it is important for the researcher to make it clear in reporting that any conclusions drawn relate only to the gender of the sample.
Another way of reducing gender bias is by trying to minimise biases within the social and historical contexts that the researchers live in which will have a direct result in how they interpret and report their own data.
What is gender bias
Gender bias refers to the tendency to favour one gender over another in psychological research, theory, or practice. Failure to consider adequately differences between men and women can lead to gender bias, based on stereotypes rather than real differences.
Ethnocentrism
A type of cultural bias that involves judging other cultures by the standards and values of one’s own culture
Cultural relativism
The idea that human behaviour can only be meaningful and understood within specific social and cultural contexts
Cultural bias
Overlooking cultural differences by looking at human behaviour from the perspective of your own culture.
Etic approach
Studying behaviour across many cultures in order to find universal human behaviours
Culture bound syndromes
Groups of syndromes classified as treatable illnesses in certain cultures that are not recognised as such in the West
Emic approach
Studying cultures in isolation by identifying behaviours that are specific to that culture
Individualist culture
Refers to Western countries (like the US) that are thought to be more independent
Collectivist cultures
Refers to cultures such as India and China that are said to be more conformist and group-orientated.
Imposed etic
A test, measure or theory devised in one culture that is used to explain behaviour in another culture
Research tradition
he familiarity a certain culture has with taking part in psychological investigations.
Universiality
Any underlying characteristic of human beings that is capable of being applied to all
Has psychological research, in general, leant towards a more etic or emic approach? Give an example of a study that shows this approach.
Psychology has been guilty of an etic approach, with many Western researchers interpreting data from other cultures through their own culturally specific system.
E.g, Ainsworth’s Strange Situation. Studied behaviour in America and argued that it applied to the rest of the world, regardless of culture.
Smith and Bond (1998) on ethnocentrism
In a study by Smith and Bond in 1998, it was revealed that a significant portion (66%) of psychological research was conducted in the United States, illustrating the prevalence of this bias.
culture bias
What did Reynolds at el (2012) find in relation to ethnic groups and diagnosis
For example, Reynolds et al 2012 found that some ethnic groups are unfairly diagnosed and disproportionately placed in special classes which resulted in applicants unfairly denied college admission or employment due to purported bias in standardised tests. Suggests that one standardised test cannot be used for people of all cultures and backgrounds because the test is unfairly biased against them.
What famous study uses culture bias and how ?
Asch’s (1951) conformity study it falsely suggests that all individuals within and outside of America conform in the same way; this was countered by Bond and Smith (1996), who argue that collectivist cultures like China may be more likely to conform due to cultural values emphasizing group harmony and conformity.
*Who *developed a framework to assess cultural dimensions, such as individualism-collectivism and power distance to reduce culture bias?
Geert Hofstede
Outline free will [5 marks]
- Free will is the idea that we can play an active role and have choice in how we behave.
- The assumption is that individuals are free to choose their behaviour and are self-determined.
- For example, people can make a free choice as to whether to commit a crime or not.
- Therefore, a person is responsible for their own actions, and it is impossible to predict human behaviour with any precision.
- Humanist psychologists argue against the determinism view, claiming that humans have self-determination and free will and that behaviour is not the result of any single cause.
possible points
Which approach employs free will?
Humanist psychologists argue against the determinism view, claiming that humans have self-determination and free will and that behaviour is not the result of any single cause.
Why might the deterministic view be considered scientific?
A strength of deterministic theories is that they align with the aims of psychology, which involve predicting and controlling behaviour.
What is meant by determinism
Determinism is the idea that an individual’s behaviour and thoughts are pre-determined and controlled by internal and external forces.
What are the 3 forms of determinism?
biological, environmental, psychic
Biological determinism
Claims we are entirely determined by genetic factors; for example, research has shown that first degree relatives of schizophrenics have a more likely chance of developing the disorder too.
Psychic determinism
Claims that behaviour is a result of childhood experiences and innate drives; for example, Freud’s model of psychological development suggests that gender differences are acquired during the phallic stage of development.
Environmental determinism
Claims that behaviour is caused by experience learned through classical and operant conditioning; for example, phobias learnt through classical conditioning
Hard vs soft determinism
- Hard determinism is the view that all behaviour is caused by forces outside a person’s control
- Soft determinism is the view that behaviour is still caused but not by external events but by their own conscious desires
What did sam harris say abt free will
Sam Harris critics free will as an illusion, possibly suggesting that our actions are products of our brain states which are themselves influenced by prior causes beyond our control
What is the scientific principle of parsimony?
find the simplest explanation and find one root cause
Historical debate on nature and nurture
Historically, the nature nurture debate revolved around whether behaviour was rooted in nativism or empiricism, with tension between the views
